1 package SQL::Abstract; # see doc at end of file
3 # LDNOTE : this code is heavy refactoring from original SQLA.
4 # Several design decisions will need discussion during
5 # the test / diffusion / acceptance phase; those are marked with flag
6 # 'LDNOTE' (note by laurent.dami AT free.fr)
11 use List::Util qw/first/;
12 use Scalar::Util qw/blessed/;
14 #======================================================================
16 #======================================================================
18 our $VERSION = '1.61';
20 # This would confuse some packagers
21 #$VERSION = eval $VERSION; # numify for warning-free dev releases
25 # special operators (-in, -between). May be extended/overridden by user.
26 # See section WHERE: BUILTIN SPECIAL OPERATORS below for implementation
27 my @BUILTIN_SPECIAL_OPS = (
28 {regex => qr/^(not )?between$/i, handler => '_where_field_BETWEEN'},
29 {regex => qr/^(not )?in$/i, handler => '_where_field_IN'},
32 # unaryish operators - key maps to handler
33 my @BUILTIN_UNARY_OPS = (
34 # the digits are backcompat stuff
35 { regex => qr/^and (?: \s? \d+ )? $/xi, handler => '_where_op_ANDOR' },
36 { regex => qr/^or (?: \s? \d+ )? $/xi, handler => '_where_op_ANDOR' },
37 { regex => qr/^nest (?: \s? \d+ )? $/xi, handler => '_where_op_NEST' },
38 { regex => qr/^ (?: not \s )? bool $/xi, handler => '_where_op_BOOL' },
41 #======================================================================
42 # DEBUGGING AND ERROR REPORTING
43 #======================================================================
46 return unless $_[0]->{debug}; shift; # a little faster
47 my $func = (caller(1))[3];
48 warn "[$func] ", @_, "\n";
52 my($func) = (caller(1))[3];
53 carp "[$func] Warning: ", @_;
57 my($func) = (caller(1))[3];
58 croak "[$func] Fatal: ", @_;
62 #======================================================================
64 #======================================================================
68 my $class = ref($self) || $self;
69 my %opt = (ref $_[0] eq 'HASH') ? %{$_[0]} : @_;
71 # choose our case by keeping an option around
72 delete $opt{case} if $opt{case} && $opt{case} ne 'lower';
74 # default logic for interpreting arrayrefs
75 $opt{logic} = $opt{logic} ? uc $opt{logic} : 'OR';
77 # how to return bind vars
78 # LDNOTE: changed nwiger code : why this 'delete' ??
79 # $opt{bindtype} ||= delete($opt{bind_type}) || 'normal';
80 $opt{bindtype} ||= 'normal';
82 # default comparison is "=", but can be overridden
85 # generic SQL comparison operators
86 my $anchored_cmp_ops = join ('|', map { '^' . $_ . '$' } (
87 '(?:is \s+)? (?:not \s+)? like',
89 (map { quotemeta($_) } (qw/ < > != <> = <= >= /) ),
91 $opt{cmp_ops} = qr/$anchored_cmp_ops/ix;
93 # try to recognize which are the 'equality' and 'unequality' ops
94 # (temporary quickfix, should go through a more seasoned API)
95 $opt{equality_op} = qr/^(\Q$opt{cmp}\E|is|(is\s+)?like)$/i;
96 $opt{inequality_op} = qr/^(!=|<>|(is\s+)?not(\s+like)?)$/i;
99 $opt{sqltrue} ||= '1=1';
100 $opt{sqlfalse} ||= '0=1';
103 $opt{special_ops} ||= [];
104 push @{$opt{special_ops}}, @BUILTIN_SPECIAL_OPS;
107 $opt{unary_ops} ||= [];
108 push @{$opt{unary_ops}}, @BUILTIN_UNARY_OPS;
110 return bless \%opt, $class;
115 #======================================================================
117 #======================================================================
121 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
122 my $data = shift || return;
125 my $method = $self->_METHOD_FOR_refkind("_insert", $data);
126 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->$method($data);
127 $sql = join " ", $self->_sqlcase('insert into'), $table, $sql;
129 if (my $ret = $options->{returning}) {
130 $sql .= $self->_insert_returning ($ret);
133 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
136 sub _insert_returning {
137 my ($self, $fields) = @_;
139 my $f = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($fields, {
140 ARRAYREF => sub {join ', ', map { $self->_quote($_) } @$fields;},
141 SCALAR => sub {$self->_quote($fields)},
142 SCALARREF => sub {$$fields},
144 return join (' ', $self->_sqlcase(' returning'), $f);
147 sub _insert_HASHREF { # explicit list of fields and then values
148 my ($self, $data) = @_;
150 my @fields = sort keys %$data;
152 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_insert_values($data);
155 $_ = $self->_quote($_) foreach @fields;
156 $sql = "( ".join(", ", @fields).") ".$sql;
158 return ($sql, @bind);
161 sub _insert_ARRAYREF { # just generate values(?,?) part (no list of fields)
162 my ($self, $data) = @_;
164 # no names (arrayref) so can't generate bindtype
165 $self->{bindtype} ne 'columns'
166 or belch "can't do 'columns' bindtype when called with arrayref";
168 # fold the list of values into a hash of column name - value pairs
169 # (where the column names are artificially generated, and their
170 # lexicographical ordering keep the ordering of the original list)
171 my $i = "a"; # incremented values will be in lexicographical order
172 my $data_in_hash = { map { ($i++ => $_) } @$data };
174 return $self->_insert_values($data_in_hash);
177 sub _insert_ARRAYREFREF { # literal SQL with bind
178 my ($self, $data) = @_;
180 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$data};
181 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
183 return ($sql, @bind);
187 sub _insert_SCALARREF { # literal SQL without bind
188 my ($self, $data) = @_;
194 my ($self, $data) = @_;
196 my (@values, @all_bind);
197 foreach my $column (sort keys %$data) {
198 my $v = $data->{$column};
200 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
203 if ($self->{array_datatypes}) { # if array datatype are activated
205 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($column, $v);
207 else { # else literal SQL with bind
208 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
209 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
211 push @all_bind, @bind;
215 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
216 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$v};
217 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
219 push @all_bind, @bind;
222 # THINK : anything useful to do with a HASHREF ?
223 HASHREF => sub { # (nothing, but old SQLA passed it through)
224 #TODO in SQLA >= 2.0 it will die instead
225 belch "HASH ref as bind value in insert is not supported";
227 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($column, $v);
230 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL without bind
234 SCALAR_or_UNDEF => sub {
236 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($column, $v);
243 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('values')." ( ".join(", ", @values)." )";
244 return ($sql, @all_bind);
249 #======================================================================
251 #======================================================================
256 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
257 my $data = shift || return;
260 # first build the 'SET' part of the sql statement
261 my (@set, @all_bind);
262 puke "Unsupported data type specified to \$sql->update"
263 unless ref $data eq 'HASH';
265 for my $k (sort keys %$data) {
268 my $label = $self->_quote($k);
270 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
272 if ($self->{array_datatypes}) { # array datatype
273 push @set, "$label = ?";
274 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
276 else { # literal SQL with bind
277 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
278 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
279 push @set, "$label = $sql";
280 push @all_bind, @bind;
283 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
284 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$v};
285 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
286 push @set, "$label = $sql";
287 push @all_bind, @bind;
289 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL without bind
290 push @set, "$label = $$v";
292 SCALAR_or_UNDEF => sub {
293 push @set, "$label = ?";
294 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
300 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('update') . " $table " . $self->_sqlcase('set ')
304 my($where_sql, @where_bind) = $self->where($where);
306 push @all_bind, @where_bind;
309 return wantarray ? ($sql, @all_bind) : $sql;
315 #======================================================================
317 #======================================================================
322 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
323 my $fields = shift || '*';
327 my($where_sql, @bind) = $self->where($where, $order);
329 my $f = (ref $fields eq 'ARRAY') ? join ', ', map { $self->_quote($_) } @$fields
331 my $sql = join(' ', $self->_sqlcase('select'), $f,
332 $self->_sqlcase('from'), $table)
335 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
338 #======================================================================
340 #======================================================================
345 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
349 my($where_sql, @bind) = $self->where($where);
350 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('delete from') . " $table" . $where_sql;
352 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
356 #======================================================================
358 #======================================================================
362 # Finally, a separate routine just to handle WHERE clauses
364 my ($self, $where, $order) = @_;
367 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_recurse_where($where);
368 $sql = $sql ? $self->_sqlcase(' where ') . "( $sql )" : '';
372 $sql .= $self->_order_by($order);
375 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
380 my ($self, $where, $logic) = @_;
382 # dispatch on appropriate method according to refkind of $where
383 my $method = $self->_METHOD_FOR_refkind("_where", $where);
386 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->$method($where, $logic);
388 # DBIx::Class directly calls _recurse_where in scalar context, so
389 # we must implement it, even if not in the official API
390 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
395 #======================================================================
396 # WHERE: top-level ARRAYREF
397 #======================================================================
400 sub _where_ARRAYREF {
401 my ($self, $where, $logic) = @_;
403 $logic = uc($logic || $self->{logic});
404 $logic eq 'AND' or $logic eq 'OR' or puke "unknown logic: $logic";
406 my @clauses = @$where;
408 my (@sql_clauses, @all_bind);
409 # need to use while() so can shift() for pairs
410 while (my $el = shift @clauses) {
412 # switch according to kind of $el and get corresponding ($sql, @bind)
413 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($el, {
415 # skip empty elements, otherwise get invalid trailing AND stuff
416 ARRAYREF => sub {$self->_recurse_where($el) if @$el},
418 ARRAYREFREF => sub { @{${$el}} if @{${$el}}},
420 HASHREF => sub {$self->_recurse_where($el, 'and') if %$el},
421 # LDNOTE : previous SQLA code for hashrefs was creating a dirty
422 # side-effect: the first hashref within an array would change
423 # the global logic to 'AND'. So [ {cond1, cond2}, [cond3, cond4] ]
424 # was interpreted as "(cond1 AND cond2) OR (cond3 AND cond4)",
425 # whereas it should be "(cond1 AND cond2) OR (cond3 OR cond4)".
427 SCALARREF => sub { ($$el); },
429 SCALAR => sub {# top-level arrayref with scalars, recurse in pairs
430 $self->_recurse_where({$el => shift(@clauses)})},
432 UNDEF => sub {puke "not supported : UNDEF in arrayref" },
436 push @sql_clauses, $sql;
437 push @all_bind, @bind;
441 return $self->_join_sql_clauses($logic, \@sql_clauses, \@all_bind);
444 #======================================================================
445 # WHERE: top-level ARRAYREFREF
446 #======================================================================
448 sub _where_ARRAYREFREF {
449 my ($self, $where) = @_;
450 my ($sql, @bind) = @{${$where}};
452 return ($sql, @bind);
455 #======================================================================
456 # WHERE: top-level HASHREF
457 #======================================================================
460 my ($self, $where) = @_;
461 my (@sql_clauses, @all_bind);
463 for my $k (sort keys %$where) {
464 my $v = $where->{$k};
466 # ($k => $v) is either a special unary op or a regular hashpair
467 my ($sql, @bind) = do {
469 # put the operator in canonical form
471 $op =~ s/^-//; # remove initial dash
472 $op =~ s/[_\t ]+/ /g; # underscores and whitespace become single spaces
473 $op =~ s/^\s+|\s+$//g;# remove leading/trailing space
475 $self->_debug("Unary OP(-$op) within hashref, recursing...");
477 my $op_entry = first {$op =~ $_->{regex}} @{$self->{unary_ops}};
478 if (my $handler = $op_entry->{handler}) {
479 if (not ref $handler) {
480 if ($op =~ s/\s?\d+$//) {
481 belch 'Use of [and|or|nest]_N modifiers is deprecated and will be removed in SQLA v2.0. '
482 . "You probably wanted ...-and => [ -$op => COND1, -$op => COND2 ... ]";
484 $self->$handler ($op, $v);
486 elsif (ref $handler eq 'CODE') {
487 $handler->($self, $op, $v);
490 puke "Illegal handler for operator $k - expecting a method name or a coderef";
494 $self->debug("Generic unary OP: $k - recursing as function");
495 $self->_where_func_generic ($op, $v);
499 my $method = $self->_METHOD_FOR_refkind("_where_hashpair", $v);
500 $self->$method($k, $v);
504 push @sql_clauses, $sql;
505 push @all_bind, @bind;
508 return $self->_join_sql_clauses('and', \@sql_clauses, \@all_bind);
511 sub _where_func_generic {
512 my ($self, $op, $rhs) = @_;
514 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind ($rhs, {
516 puke "Illegal use of top-level '$op'"
517 unless $self->{_nested_func_lhs};
520 $self->_convert('?'),
521 $self->_bindtype($self->{_nested_func_lhs}, $rhs)
525 $self->_recurse_where ($rhs)
529 $sql = sprintf ('%s%s',
530 $self->_sqlcase($op),
531 ($op =~ $self->{cmp_ops}) ? " $sql" : "( $sql )",
534 return ($sql, @bind);
537 sub _where_op_ANDOR {
538 my ($self, $op, $v) = @_;
540 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
542 return $self->_where_ARRAYREF($v, $op);
546 return ( $op =~ /^or/i )
547 ? $self->_where_ARRAYREF( [ map { $_ => $v->{$_} } ( sort keys %$v ) ], $op )
548 : $self->_where_HASHREF($v);
552 puke "-$op => \\\$scalar not supported, use -nest => ...";
556 puke "-$op => \\[..] not supported, use -nest => ...";
559 SCALAR => sub { # permissively interpreted as SQL
560 puke "-$op => 'scalar' not supported, use -nest => \\'scalar'";
564 puke "-$op => undef not supported";
570 my ($self, $op, $v) = @_;
572 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
574 SCALAR => sub { # permissively interpreted as SQL
575 belch "literal SQL should be -nest => \\'scalar' "
576 . "instead of -nest => 'scalar' ";
581 puke "-$op => undef not supported";
585 $self->_recurse_where ($v);
593 my ($self, $op, $v) = @_;
595 my ( $prefix, $suffix ) = ( $op =~ /\bnot\b/i )
599 my ($sql, @bind) = do {
600 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
601 SCALAR => sub { # interpreted as SQL column
602 $self->_convert($self->_quote($v));
606 puke "-$op => undef not supported";
610 $self->_recurse_where ($v);
616 join ('', $prefix, $sql, $suffix),
622 sub _where_hashpair_ARRAYREF {
623 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
626 my @v = @$v; # need copy because of shift below
627 $self->_debug("ARRAY($k) means distribute over elements");
629 # put apart first element if it is an operator (-and, -or)
631 (defined $v[0] && $v[0] =~ /^ - (?: AND|OR ) $/ix)
635 my @distributed = map { {$k => $_} } @v;
638 $self->_debug("OP($op) reinjected into the distributed array");
639 unshift @distributed, $op;
642 my $logic = $op ? substr($op, 1) : '';
644 return $self->_recurse_where(\@distributed, $logic);
647 # LDNOTE : not sure of this one. What does "distribute over nothing" mean?
648 $self->_debug("empty ARRAY($k) means 0=1");
649 return ($self->{sqlfalse});
653 sub _where_hashpair_HASHREF {
654 my ($self, $k, $v, $logic) = @_;
657 local $self->{_nested_func_lhs} = $self->{_nested_func_lhs};
658 $self->{_nested_func_lhs} ||= $k;
660 my ($all_sql, @all_bind);
662 for my $orig_op (sort keys %$v) {
663 my $val = $v->{$orig_op};
665 # put the operator in canonical form
667 $op =~ s/^-//; # remove initial dash
668 $op =~ s/[_\t ]+/ /g; # underscores and whitespace become single spaces
669 $op =~ s/^\s+|\s+$//g;# remove leading/trailing space
673 # CASE: col-value logic modifiers
674 if ( $orig_op =~ /^ \- (and|or) $/xi ) {
675 ($sql, @bind) = $self->_where_hashpair_HASHREF($k, $val, $1);
677 # CASE: special operators like -in or -between
678 elsif ( my $special_op = first {$op =~ $_->{regex}} @{$self->{special_ops}} ) {
679 my $handler = $special_op->{handler};
681 puke "No handler supplied for special operator $orig_op";
683 elsif (not ref $handler) {
684 ($sql, @bind) = $self->$handler ($k, $op, $val);
686 elsif (ref $handler eq 'CODE') {
687 ($sql, @bind) = $handler->($self, $k, $op, $val);
690 puke "Illegal handler for special operator $orig_op - expecting a method name or a coderef";
694 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($val, {
696 ARRAYREF => sub { # CASE: col => {op => \@vals}
697 ($sql, @bind) = $self->_where_field_op_ARRAYREF($k, $op, $val);
700 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # CASE: col => {op => \[$sql, @bind]} (literal SQL with bind)
701 my ($sub_sql, @sub_bind) = @$$val;
702 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@sub_bind);
703 $sql = join ' ', $self->_convert($self->_quote($k)),
704 $self->_sqlcase($op),
709 UNDEF => sub { # CASE: col => {op => undef} : sql "IS (NOT)? NULL"
710 my $is = ($op =~ $self->{equality_op}) ? 'is' :
711 ($op =~ $self->{inequality_op}) ? 'is not' :
712 puke "unexpected operator '$orig_op' with undef operand";
713 $sql = $self->_quote($k) . $self->_sqlcase(" $is null");
716 FALLBACK => sub { # CASE: col => {op/func => $stuff}
717 ($sql, @bind) = $self->_where_func_generic ($op, $val);
718 $sql = join ' ', $self->_convert($self->_quote($k)), $sql;
723 ($all_sql) = (defined $all_sql and $all_sql) ? $self->_join_sql_clauses($logic, [$all_sql, $sql], []) : $sql;
724 push @all_bind, @bind;
726 return ($all_sql, @all_bind);
731 sub _where_field_op_ARRAYREF {
732 my ($self, $k, $op, $vals) = @_;
734 my @vals = @$vals; #always work on a copy
737 $self->_debug(sprintf '%s means multiple elements: [ %s ]',
739 join (', ', map { defined $_ ? "'$_'" : 'NULL' } @vals ),
742 # see if the first element is an -and/-or op
744 if (defined $vals[0] && $vals[0] =~ /^ - ( AND|OR ) $/ix) {
749 # distribute $op over each remaining member of @vals, append logic if exists
750 return $self->_recurse_where([map { {$k => {$op, $_}} } @vals], $logic);
752 # LDNOTE : had planned to change the distribution logic when
753 # $op =~ $self->{inequality_op}, because of Morgan laws :
754 # with {field => {'!=' => [22, 33]}}, it would be ridiculous to generate
755 # WHERE field != 22 OR field != 33 : the user probably means
756 # WHERE field != 22 AND field != 33.
757 # To do this, replace the above to roughly :
758 # my $logic = ($op =~ $self->{inequality_op}) ? 'AND' : 'OR';
759 # return $self->_recurse_where([map { {$k => {$op, $_}} } @vals], $logic);
763 # try to DWIM on equality operators
764 # LDNOTE : not 100% sure this is the correct thing to do ...
765 return ($self->{sqlfalse}) if $op =~ $self->{equality_op};
766 return ($self->{sqltrue}) if $op =~ $self->{inequality_op};
769 puke "operator '$op' applied on an empty array (field '$k')";
774 sub _where_hashpair_SCALARREF {
775 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
776 $self->_debug("SCALAR($k) means literal SQL: $$v");
777 my $sql = $self->_quote($k) . " " . $$v;
781 # literal SQL with bind
782 sub _where_hashpair_ARRAYREFREF {
783 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
784 $self->_debug("REF($k) means literal SQL: @${$v}");
785 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$v};
786 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
787 $sql = $self->_quote($k) . " " . $sql;
788 return ($sql, @bind );
791 # literal SQL without bind
792 sub _where_hashpair_SCALAR {
793 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
794 $self->_debug("NOREF($k) means simple key=val: $k $self->{cmp} $v");
795 my $sql = join ' ', $self->_convert($self->_quote($k)),
796 $self->_sqlcase($self->{cmp}),
797 $self->_convert('?');
798 my @bind = $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
799 return ( $sql, @bind);
803 sub _where_hashpair_UNDEF {
804 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
805 $self->_debug("UNDEF($k) means IS NULL");
806 my $sql = $self->_quote($k) . $self->_sqlcase(' is null');
810 #======================================================================
811 # WHERE: TOP-LEVEL OTHERS (SCALARREF, SCALAR, UNDEF)
812 #======================================================================
815 sub _where_SCALARREF {
816 my ($self, $where) = @_;
819 $self->_debug("SCALAR(*top) means literal SQL: $$where");
825 my ($self, $where) = @_;
828 $self->_debug("NOREF(*top) means literal SQL: $where");
839 #======================================================================
840 # WHERE: BUILTIN SPECIAL OPERATORS (-in, -between)
841 #======================================================================
844 sub _where_field_BETWEEN {
845 my ($self, $k, $op, $vals) = @_;
847 my ($label, $and, $placeholder);
848 $label = $self->_convert($self->_quote($k));
849 $and = ' ' . $self->_sqlcase('and') . ' ';
850 $placeholder = $self->_convert('?');
851 $op = $self->_sqlcase($op);
853 my ($clause, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($vals, {
861 puke "special op 'between' accepts an arrayref with exactly two values"
864 my (@all_sql, @all_bind);
865 foreach my $val (@$vals) {
866 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($val, {
868 return ($placeholder, ($val));
871 return ($self->_convert($$val), ());
874 my ($sql, @bind) = @$$val;
875 return ($self->_convert($sql), @bind);
879 push @all_bind, @bind;
883 (join $and, @all_sql),
884 $self->_bindtype($k, @all_bind),
888 puke "special op 'between' accepts an arrayref with two values, or a single literal scalarref/arrayref-ref";
892 my $sql = "( $label $op $clause )";
897 sub _where_field_IN {
898 my ($self, $k, $op, $vals) = @_;
900 # backwards compatibility : if scalar, force into an arrayref
901 $vals = [$vals] if defined $vals && ! ref $vals;
903 my ($label) = $self->_convert($self->_quote($k));
904 my ($placeholder) = $self->_convert('?');
905 $op = $self->_sqlcase($op);
907 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($vals, {
908 ARRAYREF => sub { # list of choices
909 if (@$vals) { # nonempty list
910 my $placeholders = join ", ", (($placeholder) x @$vals);
911 my $sql = "$label $op ( $placeholders )";
912 my @bind = $self->_bindtype($k, @$vals);
914 return ($sql, @bind);
916 else { # empty list : some databases won't understand "IN ()", so DWIM
917 my $sql = ($op =~ /\bnot\b/i) ? $self->{sqltrue} : $self->{sqlfalse};
922 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL
923 my $sql = $self->_open_outer_paren ($$vals);
924 return ("$label $op ( $sql )");
926 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
927 my ($sql, @bind) = @$$vals;
928 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
929 $sql = $self->_open_outer_paren ($sql);
930 return ("$label $op ( $sql )", @bind);
934 puke "special op 'in' requires an arrayref (or scalarref/arrayref-ref)";
938 return ($sql, @bind);
941 # Some databases (SQLite) treat col IN (1, 2) different from
942 # col IN ( (1, 2) ). Use this to strip all outer parens while
943 # adding them back in the corresponding method
944 sub _open_outer_paren {
945 my ($self, $sql) = @_;
946 $sql = $1 while $sql =~ /^ \s* \( (.*) \) \s* $/xs;
951 #======================================================================
953 #======================================================================
956 my ($self, $arg) = @_;
959 for my $c ($self->_order_by_chunks ($arg) ) {
960 $self->_SWITCH_refkind ($c, {
961 SCALAR => sub { push @sql, $c },
962 ARRAYREF => sub { push @sql, shift @$c; push @bind, @$c },
968 $self->_sqlcase(' order by'),
974 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
977 sub _order_by_chunks {
978 my ($self, $arg) = @_;
980 return $self->_SWITCH_refkind($arg, {
983 map { $self->_order_by_chunks ($_ ) } @$arg;
986 ARRAYREFREF => sub { [ @$$arg ] },
988 SCALAR => sub {$self->_quote($arg)},
990 UNDEF => sub {return () },
992 SCALARREF => sub {$$arg}, # literal SQL, no quoting
995 # get first pair in hash
996 my ($key, $val) = each %$arg;
998 return () unless $key;
1000 if ( (keys %$arg) > 1 or not $key =~ /^-(desc|asc)/i ) {
1001 puke "hash passed to _order_by must have exactly one key (-desc or -asc)";
1007 for my $c ($self->_order_by_chunks ($val)) {
1010 $self->_SWITCH_refkind ($c, {
1015 ($sql, @bind) = @$c;
1019 $sql = $sql . ' ' . $self->_sqlcase($direction);
1021 push @ret, [ $sql, @bind];
1030 #======================================================================
1031 # DATASOURCE (FOR NOW, JUST PLAIN TABLE OR LIST OF TABLES)
1032 #======================================================================
1037 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($from, {
1038 ARRAYREF => sub {join ', ', map { $self->_quote($_) } @$from;},
1039 SCALAR => sub {$self->_quote($from)},
1040 SCALARREF => sub {$$from},
1041 ARRAYREFREF => sub {join ', ', @$from;},
1046 #======================================================================
1048 #======================================================================
1054 $label or puke "can't quote an empty label";
1056 # left and right quote characters
1057 my ($ql, $qr, @other) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($self->{quote_char}, {
1058 SCALAR => sub {($self->{quote_char}, $self->{quote_char})},
1059 ARRAYREF => sub {@{$self->{quote_char}}},
1063 or puke "quote_char must be an arrayref of 2 values";
1065 # no quoting if no quoting chars
1066 $ql or return $label;
1068 # no quoting for literal SQL
1069 return $$label if ref($label) eq 'SCALAR';
1071 # separate table / column (if applicable)
1072 my $sep = $self->{name_sep} || '';
1073 my @to_quote = $sep ? split /\Q$sep\E/, $label : ($label);
1075 # do the quoting, except for "*" or for `table`.*
1076 my @quoted = map { $_ eq '*' ? $_: $ql.$_.$qr} @to_quote;
1078 # reassemble and return.
1079 return join $sep, @quoted;
1083 # Conversion, if applicable
1085 my ($self, $arg) = @_;
1087 # LDNOTE : modified the previous implementation below because
1088 # it was not consistent : the first "return" is always an array,
1089 # the second "return" is context-dependent. Anyway, _convert
1090 # seems always used with just a single argument, so make it a
1092 # return @_ unless $self->{convert};
1093 # my $conv = $self->_sqlcase($self->{convert});
1094 # my @ret = map { $conv.'('.$_.')' } @_;
1095 # return wantarray ? @ret : $ret[0];
1096 if ($self->{convert}) {
1097 my $conv = $self->_sqlcase($self->{convert});
1098 $arg = $conv.'('.$arg.')';
1106 my($col, @vals) = @_;
1108 #LDNOTE : changed original implementation below because it did not make
1109 # sense when bindtype eq 'columns' and @vals > 1.
1110 # return $self->{bindtype} eq 'columns' ? [ $col, @vals ] : @vals;
1112 return $self->{bindtype} eq 'columns' ? map {[$col, $_]} @vals : @vals;
1115 # Dies if any element of @bind is not in [colname => value] format
1116 # if bindtype is 'columns'.
1117 sub _assert_bindval_matches_bindtype {
1118 my ($self, @bind) = @_;
1120 if ($self->{bindtype} eq 'columns') {
1121 foreach my $val (@bind) {
1122 if (!defined $val || ref($val) ne 'ARRAY' || @$val != 2) {
1123 die "bindtype 'columns' selected, you need to pass: [column_name => bind_value]"
1129 sub _join_sql_clauses {
1130 my ($self, $logic, $clauses_aref, $bind_aref) = @_;
1132 if (@$clauses_aref > 1) {
1133 my $join = " " . $self->_sqlcase($logic) . " ";
1134 my $sql = '( ' . join($join, @$clauses_aref) . ' )';
1135 return ($sql, @$bind_aref);
1137 elsif (@$clauses_aref) {
1138 return ($clauses_aref->[0], @$bind_aref); # no parentheses
1141 return (); # if no SQL, ignore @$bind_aref
1146 # Fix SQL case, if so requested
1150 # LDNOTE: if $self->{case} is true, then it contains 'lower', so we
1151 # don't touch the argument ... crooked logic, but let's not change it!
1152 return $self->{case} ? $_[0] : uc($_[0]);
1156 #======================================================================
1157 # DISPATCHING FROM REFKIND
1158 #======================================================================
1161 my ($self, $data) = @_;
1167 # blessed objects are treated like scalars
1168 $ref = (blessed $data) ? '' : ref $data;
1169 $n_steps += 1 if $ref;
1170 last if $ref ne 'REF';
1174 my $base = $ref || (defined $data ? 'SCALAR' : 'UNDEF');
1176 return $base . ('REF' x $n_steps);
1182 my ($self, $data) = @_;
1183 my @try = ($self->_refkind($data));
1184 push @try, 'SCALAR_or_UNDEF' if $try[0] eq 'SCALAR' || $try[0] eq 'UNDEF';
1185 push @try, 'FALLBACK';
1189 sub _METHOD_FOR_refkind {
1190 my ($self, $meth_prefix, $data) = @_;
1191 my $method = first {$_} map {$self->can($meth_prefix."_".$_)}
1192 $self->_try_refkind($data)
1193 or puke "cannot dispatch on '$meth_prefix' for ".$self->_refkind($data);
1198 sub _SWITCH_refkind {
1199 my ($self, $data, $dispatch_table) = @_;
1201 my $coderef = first {$_} map {$dispatch_table->{$_}}
1202 $self->_try_refkind($data)
1203 or puke "no dispatch entry for ".$self->_refkind($data);
1210 #======================================================================
1211 # VALUES, GENERATE, AUTOLOAD
1212 #======================================================================
1214 # LDNOTE: original code from nwiger, didn't touch code in that section
1215 # I feel the AUTOLOAD stuff should not be the default, it should
1216 # only be activated on explicit demand by user.
1220 my $data = shift || return;
1221 puke "Argument to ", __PACKAGE__, "->values must be a \\%hash"
1222 unless ref $data eq 'HASH';
1225 foreach my $k ( sort keys %$data ) {
1226 my $v = $data->{$k};
1227 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
1229 if ($self->{array_datatypes}) { # array datatype
1230 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
1232 else { # literal SQL with bind
1233 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
1234 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1235 push @all_bind, @bind;
1238 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
1239 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$v};
1240 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1241 push @all_bind, @bind;
1243 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL without bind
1245 SCALAR_or_UNDEF => sub {
1246 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
1257 my(@sql, @sqlq, @sqlv);
1261 if ($ref eq 'HASH') {
1262 for my $k (sort keys %$_) {
1265 my $label = $self->_quote($k);
1266 if ($r eq 'ARRAY') {
1267 # literal SQL with bind
1268 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
1269 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1270 push @sqlq, "$label = $sql";
1272 } elsif ($r eq 'SCALAR') {
1273 # literal SQL without bind
1274 push @sqlq, "$label = $$v";
1276 push @sqlq, "$label = ?";
1277 push @sqlv, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
1280 push @sql, $self->_sqlcase('set'), join ', ', @sqlq;
1281 } elsif ($ref eq 'ARRAY') {
1282 # unlike insert(), assume these are ONLY the column names, i.e. for SQL
1285 if ($r eq 'ARRAY') { # literal SQL with bind
1286 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
1287 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1290 } elsif ($r eq 'SCALAR') { # literal SQL without bind
1291 # embedded literal SQL
1298 push @sql, '(' . join(', ', @sqlq) . ')';
1299 } elsif ($ref eq 'SCALAR') {
1303 # strings get case twiddled
1304 push @sql, $self->_sqlcase($_);
1308 my $sql = join ' ', @sql;
1310 # this is pretty tricky
1311 # if ask for an array, return ($stmt, @bind)
1312 # otherwise, s/?/shift @sqlv/ to put it inline
1314 return ($sql, @sqlv);
1316 1 while $sql =~ s/\?/my $d = shift(@sqlv);
1317 ref $d ? $d->[1] : $d/e;
1326 # This allows us to check for a local, then _form, attr
1328 my($name) = $AUTOLOAD =~ /.*::(.+)/;
1329 return $self->generate($name, @_);
1340 SQL::Abstract - Generate SQL from Perl data structures
1346 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new;
1348 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->select($table, \@fields, \%where, \@order);
1350 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert($table, \%fieldvals || \@values);
1352 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->update($table, \%fieldvals, \%where);
1354 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->delete($table, \%where);
1356 # Then, use these in your DBI statements
1357 my $sth = $dbh->prepare($stmt);
1358 $sth->execute(@bind);
1360 # Just generate the WHERE clause
1361 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->where(\%where, \@order);
1363 # Return values in the same order, for hashed queries
1364 # See PERFORMANCE section for more details
1365 my @bind = $sql->values(\%fieldvals);
1369 This module was inspired by the excellent L<DBIx::Abstract>.
1370 However, in using that module I found that what I really wanted
1371 to do was generate SQL, but still retain complete control over my
1372 statement handles and use the DBI interface. So, I set out to
1373 create an abstract SQL generation module.
1375 While based on the concepts used by L<DBIx::Abstract>, there are
1376 several important differences, especially when it comes to WHERE
1377 clauses. I have modified the concepts used to make the SQL easier
1378 to generate from Perl data structures and, IMO, more intuitive.
1379 The underlying idea is for this module to do what you mean, based
1380 on the data structures you provide it. The big advantage is that
1381 you don't have to modify your code every time your data changes,
1382 as this module figures it out.
1384 To begin with, an SQL INSERT is as easy as just specifying a hash
1385 of C<key=value> pairs:
1388 name => 'Jimbo Bobson',
1389 phone => '123-456-7890',
1390 address => '42 Sister Lane',
1391 city => 'St. Louis',
1392 state => 'Louisiana',
1395 The SQL can then be generated with this:
1397 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert('people', \%data);
1399 Which would give you something like this:
1401 $stmt = "INSERT INTO people
1402 (address, city, name, phone, state)
1403 VALUES (?, ?, ?, ?, ?)";
1404 @bind = ('42 Sister Lane', 'St. Louis', 'Jimbo Bobson',
1405 '123-456-7890', 'Louisiana');
1407 These are then used directly in your DBI code:
1409 my $sth = $dbh->prepare($stmt);
1410 $sth->execute(@bind);
1412 =head2 Inserting and Updating Arrays
1414 If your database has array types (like for example Postgres),
1415 activate the special option C<< array_datatypes => 1 >>
1416 when creating the C<SQL::Abstract> object.
1417 Then you may use an arrayref to insert and update database array types:
1419 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(array_datatypes => 1);
1421 planets => [qw/Mercury Venus Earth Mars/]
1424 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert('solar_system', \%data);
1428 $stmt = "INSERT INTO solar_system (planets) VALUES (?)"
1430 @bind = (['Mercury', 'Venus', 'Earth', 'Mars']);
1433 =head2 Inserting and Updating SQL
1435 In order to apply SQL functions to elements of your C<%data> you may
1436 specify a reference to an arrayref for the given hash value. For example,
1437 if you need to execute the Oracle C<to_date> function on a value, you can
1438 say something like this:
1442 date_entered => \["to_date(?,'MM/DD/YYYY')", "03/02/2003"],
1445 The first value in the array is the actual SQL. Any other values are
1446 optional and would be included in the bind values array. This gives
1449 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert('people', \%data);
1451 $stmt = "INSERT INTO people (name, date_entered)
1452 VALUES (?, to_date(?,'MM/DD/YYYY'))";
1453 @bind = ('Bill', '03/02/2003');
1455 An UPDATE is just as easy, all you change is the name of the function:
1457 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->update('people', \%data);
1459 Notice that your C<%data> isn't touched; the module will generate
1460 the appropriately quirky SQL for you automatically. Usually you'll
1461 want to specify a WHERE clause for your UPDATE, though, which is
1462 where handling C<%where> hashes comes in handy...
1464 =head2 Complex where statements
1466 This module can generate pretty complicated WHERE statements
1467 easily. For example, simple C<key=value> pairs are taken to mean
1468 equality, and if you want to see if a field is within a set
1469 of values, you can use an arrayref. Let's say we wanted to
1470 SELECT some data based on this criteria:
1473 requestor => 'inna',
1474 worker => ['nwiger', 'rcwe', 'sfz'],
1475 status => { '!=', 'completed' }
1478 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->select('tickets', '*', \%where);
1480 The above would give you something like this:
1482 $stmt = "SELECT * FROM tickets WHERE
1483 ( requestor = ? ) AND ( status != ? )
1484 AND ( worker = ? OR worker = ? OR worker = ? )";
1485 @bind = ('inna', 'completed', 'nwiger', 'rcwe', 'sfz');
1487 Which you could then use in DBI code like so:
1489 my $sth = $dbh->prepare($stmt);
1490 $sth->execute(@bind);
1496 The functions are simple. There's one for each major SQL operation,
1497 and a constructor you use first. The arguments are specified in a
1498 similar order to each function (table, then fields, then a where
1499 clause) to try and simplify things.
1504 =head2 new(option => 'value')
1506 The C<new()> function takes a list of options and values, and returns
1507 a new B<SQL::Abstract> object which can then be used to generate SQL
1508 through the methods below. The options accepted are:
1514 If set to 'lower', then SQL will be generated in all lowercase. By
1515 default SQL is generated in "textbook" case meaning something like:
1517 SELECT a_field FROM a_table WHERE some_field LIKE '%someval%'
1519 Any setting other than 'lower' is ignored.
1523 This determines what the default comparison operator is. By default
1524 it is C<=>, meaning that a hash like this:
1526 %where = (name => 'nwiger', email => 'nate@wiger.org');
1528 Will generate SQL like this:
1530 WHERE name = 'nwiger' AND email = 'nate@wiger.org'
1532 However, you may want loose comparisons by default, so if you set
1533 C<cmp> to C<like> you would get SQL such as:
1535 WHERE name like 'nwiger' AND email like 'nate@wiger.org'
1537 You can also override the comparsion on an individual basis - see
1538 the huge section on L</"WHERE CLAUSES"> at the bottom.
1540 =item sqltrue, sqlfalse
1542 Expressions for inserting boolean values within SQL statements.
1543 By default these are C<1=1> and C<1=0>. They are used
1544 by the special operators C<-in> and C<-not_in> for generating
1545 correct SQL even when the argument is an empty array (see below).
1549 This determines the default logical operator for multiple WHERE
1550 statements in arrays or hashes. If absent, the default logic is "or"
1551 for arrays, and "and" for hashes. This means that a WHERE
1555 event_date => {'>=', '2/13/99'},
1556 event_date => {'<=', '4/24/03'},
1559 will generate SQL like this:
1561 WHERE event_date >= '2/13/99' OR event_date <= '4/24/03'
1563 This is probably not what you want given this query, though (look
1564 at the dates). To change the "OR" to an "AND", simply specify:
1566 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(logic => 'and');
1568 Which will change the above C<WHERE> to:
1570 WHERE event_date >= '2/13/99' AND event_date <= '4/24/03'
1572 The logic can also be changed locally by inserting
1573 a modifier in front of an arrayref :
1575 @where = (-and => [event_date => {'>=', '2/13/99'},
1576 event_date => {'<=', '4/24/03'} ]);
1578 See the L</"WHERE CLAUSES"> section for explanations.
1582 This will automatically convert comparisons using the specified SQL
1583 function for both column and value. This is mostly used with an argument
1584 of C<upper> or C<lower>, so that the SQL will have the effect of
1585 case-insensitive "searches". For example, this:
1587 $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(convert => 'upper');
1588 %where = (keywords => 'MaKe iT CAse inSeNSItive');
1590 Will turn out the following SQL:
1592 WHERE upper(keywords) like upper('MaKe iT CAse inSeNSItive')
1594 The conversion can be C<upper()>, C<lower()>, or any other SQL function
1595 that can be applied symmetrically to fields (actually B<SQL::Abstract> does
1596 not validate this option; it will just pass through what you specify verbatim).
1600 This is a kludge because many databases suck. For example, you can't
1601 just bind values using DBI's C<execute()> for Oracle C<CLOB> or C<BLOB> fields.
1602 Instead, you have to use C<bind_param()>:
1604 $sth->bind_param(1, 'reg data');
1605 $sth->bind_param(2, $lots, {ora_type => ORA_CLOB});
1607 The problem is, B<SQL::Abstract> will normally just return a C<@bind> array,
1608 which loses track of which field each slot refers to. Fear not.
1610 If you specify C<bindtype> in new, you can determine how C<@bind> is returned.
1611 Currently, you can specify either C<normal> (default) or C<columns>. If you
1612 specify C<columns>, you will get an array that looks like this:
1614 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(bindtype => 'columns');
1615 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert(...);
1618 [ 'column1', 'value1' ],
1619 [ 'column2', 'value2' ],
1620 [ 'column3', 'value3' ],
1623 You can then iterate through this manually, using DBI's C<bind_param()>.
1625 $sth->prepare($stmt);
1628 my($col, $data) = @$_;
1629 if ($col eq 'details' || $col eq 'comments') {
1630 $sth->bind_param($i, $data, {ora_type => ORA_CLOB});
1631 } elsif ($col eq 'image') {
1632 $sth->bind_param($i, $data, {ora_type => ORA_BLOB});
1634 $sth->bind_param($i, $data);
1638 $sth->execute; # execute without @bind now
1640 Now, why would you still use B<SQL::Abstract> if you have to do this crap?
1641 Basically, the advantage is still that you don't have to care which fields
1642 are or are not included. You could wrap that above C<for> loop in a simple
1643 sub called C<bind_fields()> or something and reuse it repeatedly. You still
1644 get a layer of abstraction over manual SQL specification.
1646 Note that if you set L</bindtype> to C<columns>, the C<\[$sql, @bind]>
1647 construct (see L</Literal SQL with placeholders and bind values (subqueries)>)
1648 will expect the bind values in this format.
1652 This is the character that a table or column name will be quoted
1653 with. By default this is an empty string, but you could set it to
1654 the character C<`>, to generate SQL like this:
1656 SELECT `a_field` FROM `a_table` WHERE `some_field` LIKE '%someval%'
1658 Alternatively, you can supply an array ref of two items, the first being the left
1659 hand quote character, and the second the right hand quote character. For
1660 example, you could supply C<['[',']']> for SQL Server 2000 compliant quotes
1661 that generates SQL like this:
1663 SELECT [a_field] FROM [a_table] WHERE [some_field] LIKE '%someval%'
1665 Quoting is useful if you have tables or columns names that are reserved
1666 words in your database's SQL dialect.
1670 This is the character that separates a table and column name. It is
1671 necessary to specify this when the C<quote_char> option is selected,
1672 so that tables and column names can be individually quoted like this:
1674 SELECT `table`.`one_field` FROM `table` WHERE `table`.`other_field` = 1
1676 =item array_datatypes
1678 When this option is true, arrayrefs in INSERT or UPDATE are
1679 interpreted as array datatypes and are passed directly
1681 When this option is false, arrayrefs are interpreted
1682 as literal SQL, just like refs to arrayrefs
1683 (but this behavior is for backwards compatibility; when writing
1684 new queries, use the "reference to arrayref" syntax
1690 Takes a reference to a list of "special operators"
1691 to extend the syntax understood by L<SQL::Abstract>.
1692 See section L</"SPECIAL OPERATORS"> for details.
1696 Takes a reference to a list of "unary operators"
1697 to extend the syntax understood by L<SQL::Abstract>.
1698 See section L</"UNARY OPERATORS"> for details.
1704 =head2 insert($table, \@values || \%fieldvals, \%options)
1706 This is the simplest function. You simply give it a table name
1707 and either an arrayref of values or hashref of field/value pairs.
1708 It returns an SQL INSERT statement and a list of bind values.
1709 See the sections on L</"Inserting and Updating Arrays"> and
1710 L</"Inserting and Updating SQL"> for information on how to insert
1711 with those data types.
1713 The optional C<\%options> hash reference may contain additional
1714 options to generate the insert SQL. Currently supported options
1721 Takes either a scalar of raw SQL fields, or an array reference of
1722 field names, and adds on an SQL C<RETURNING> statement at the end.
1723 This allows you to return data generated by the insert statement
1724 (such as row IDs) without performing another C<SELECT> statement.
1725 Note, however, this is not part of the SQL standard and may not
1726 be supported by all database engines.
1730 =head2 update($table, \%fieldvals, \%where)
1732 This takes a table, hashref of field/value pairs, and an optional
1733 hashref L<WHERE clause|/WHERE CLAUSES>. It returns an SQL UPDATE function and a list
1735 See the sections on L</"Inserting and Updating Arrays"> and
1736 L</"Inserting and Updating SQL"> for information on how to insert
1737 with those data types.
1739 =head2 select($source, $fields, $where, $order)
1741 This returns a SQL SELECT statement and associated list of bind values, as
1742 specified by the arguments :
1748 Specification of the 'FROM' part of the statement.
1749 The argument can be either a plain scalar (interpreted as a table
1750 name, will be quoted), or an arrayref (interpreted as a list
1751 of table names, joined by commas, quoted), or a scalarref
1752 (literal table name, not quoted), or a ref to an arrayref
1753 (list of literal table names, joined by commas, not quoted).
1757 Specification of the list of fields to retrieve from
1759 The argument can be either an arrayref (interpreted as a list
1760 of field names, will be joined by commas and quoted), or a
1761 plain scalar (literal SQL, not quoted).
1762 Please observe that this API is not as flexible as for
1763 the first argument C<$table>, for backwards compatibility reasons.
1767 Optional argument to specify the WHERE part of the query.
1768 The argument is most often a hashref, but can also be
1769 an arrayref or plain scalar --
1770 see section L<WHERE clause|/"WHERE CLAUSES"> for details.
1774 Optional argument to specify the ORDER BY part of the query.
1775 The argument can be a scalar, a hashref or an arrayref
1776 -- see section L<ORDER BY clause|/"ORDER BY CLAUSES">
1782 =head2 delete($table, \%where)
1784 This takes a table name and optional hashref L<WHERE clause|/WHERE CLAUSES>.
1785 It returns an SQL DELETE statement and list of bind values.
1787 =head2 where(\%where, \@order)
1789 This is used to generate just the WHERE clause. For example,
1790 if you have an arbitrary data structure and know what the
1791 rest of your SQL is going to look like, but want an easy way
1792 to produce a WHERE clause, use this. It returns an SQL WHERE
1793 clause and list of bind values.
1796 =head2 values(\%data)
1798 This just returns the values from the hash C<%data>, in the same
1799 order that would be returned from any of the other above queries.
1800 Using this allows you to markedly speed up your queries if you
1801 are affecting lots of rows. See below under the L</"PERFORMANCE"> section.
1803 =head2 generate($any, 'number', $of, \@data, $struct, \%types)
1805 Warning: This is an experimental method and subject to change.
1807 This returns arbitrarily generated SQL. It's a really basic shortcut.
1808 It will return two different things, depending on return context:
1810 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->generate('create table', \$table, \@fields);
1811 my $stmt_and_val = $sql->generate('create table', \$table, \@fields);
1813 These would return the following:
1815 # First calling form
1816 $stmt = "CREATE TABLE test (?, ?)";
1817 @bind = (field1, field2);
1819 # Second calling form
1820 $stmt_and_val = "CREATE TABLE test (field1, field2)";
1822 Depending on what you're trying to do, it's up to you to choose the correct
1823 format. In this example, the second form is what you would want.
1827 $sql->generate('alter session', { nls_date_format => 'MM/YY' });
1831 ALTER SESSION SET nls_date_format = 'MM/YY'
1833 You get the idea. Strings get their case twiddled, but everything
1834 else remains verbatim.
1839 =head1 WHERE CLAUSES
1843 This module uses a variation on the idea from L<DBIx::Abstract>. It
1844 is B<NOT>, repeat I<not> 100% compatible. B<The main logic of this
1845 module is that things in arrays are OR'ed, and things in hashes
1848 The easiest way to explain is to show lots of examples. After
1849 each C<%where> hash shown, it is assumed you used:
1851 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->where(\%where);
1853 However, note that the C<%where> hash can be used directly in any
1854 of the other functions as well, as described above.
1856 =head2 Key-value pairs
1858 So, let's get started. To begin, a simple hash:
1862 status => 'completed'
1865 Is converted to SQL C<key = val> statements:
1867 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND status = ?";
1868 @bind = ('nwiger', 'completed');
1870 One common thing I end up doing is having a list of values that
1871 a field can be in. To do this, simply specify a list inside of
1876 status => ['assigned', 'in-progress', 'pending'];
1879 This simple code will create the following:
1881 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND ( status = ? OR status = ? OR status = ? )";
1882 @bind = ('nwiger', 'assigned', 'in-progress', 'pending');
1884 A field associated to an empty arrayref will be considered a
1885 logical false and will generate 0=1.
1887 =head2 Specific comparison operators
1889 If you want to specify a different type of operator for your comparison,
1890 you can use a hashref for a given column:
1894 status => { '!=', 'completed' }
1897 Which would generate:
1899 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND status != ?";
1900 @bind = ('nwiger', 'completed');
1902 To test against multiple values, just enclose the values in an arrayref:
1904 status => { '=', ['assigned', 'in-progress', 'pending'] };
1906 Which would give you:
1908 "WHERE status = ? OR status = ? OR status = ?"
1911 The hashref can also contain multiple pairs, in which case it is expanded
1912 into an C<AND> of its elements:
1916 status => { '!=', 'completed', -not_like => 'pending%' }
1919 # Or more dynamically, like from a form
1920 $where{user} = 'nwiger';
1921 $where{status}{'!='} = 'completed';
1922 $where{status}{'-not_like'} = 'pending%';
1924 # Both generate this
1925 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND status != ? AND status NOT LIKE ?";
1926 @bind = ('nwiger', 'completed', 'pending%');
1929 To get an OR instead, you can combine it with the arrayref idea:
1933 priority => [ {'=', 2}, {'!=', 1} ]
1936 Which would generate:
1938 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND priority = ? OR priority != ?";
1939 @bind = ('nwiger', '2', '1');
1941 If you want to include literal SQL (with or without bind values), just use a
1942 scalar reference or array reference as the value:
1945 date_entered => { '>' => \["to_date(?, 'MM/DD/YYYY')", "11/26/2008"] },
1946 date_expires => { '<' => \"now()" }
1949 Which would generate:
1951 $stmt = "WHERE date_entered > "to_date(?, 'MM/DD/YYYY') AND date_expires < now()";
1952 @bind = ('11/26/2008');
1955 =head2 Logic and nesting operators
1957 In the example above,
1958 there is a subtle trap if you want to say something like
1959 this (notice the C<AND>):
1961 WHERE priority != ? AND priority != ?
1963 Because, in Perl you I<can't> do this:
1965 priority => { '!=', 2, '!=', 1 }
1967 As the second C<!=> key will obliterate the first. The solution
1968 is to use the special C<-modifier> form inside an arrayref:
1970 priority => [ -and => {'!=', 2},
1974 Normally, these would be joined by C<OR>, but the modifier tells it
1975 to use C<AND> instead. (Hint: You can use this in conjunction with the
1976 C<logic> option to C<new()> in order to change the way your queries
1977 work by default.) B<Important:> Note that the C<-modifier> goes
1978 B<INSIDE> the arrayref, as an extra first element. This will
1979 B<NOT> do what you think it might:
1981 priority => -and => [{'!=', 2}, {'!=', 1}] # WRONG!
1983 Here is a quick list of equivalencies, since there is some overlap:
1986 status => {'!=', 'completed', 'not like', 'pending%' }
1987 status => [ -and => {'!=', 'completed'}, {'not like', 'pending%'}]
1990 status => {'=', ['assigned', 'in-progress']}
1991 status => [ -or => {'=', 'assigned'}, {'=', 'in-progress'}]
1992 status => [ {'=', 'assigned'}, {'=', 'in-progress'} ]
1996 =head2 Special operators : IN, BETWEEN, etc.
1998 You can also use the hashref format to compare a list of fields using the
1999 C<IN> comparison operator, by specifying the list as an arrayref:
2002 status => 'completed',
2003 reportid => { -in => [567, 2335, 2] }
2006 Which would generate:
2008 $stmt = "WHERE status = ? AND reportid IN (?,?,?)";
2009 @bind = ('completed', '567', '2335', '2');
2011 The reverse operator C<-not_in> generates SQL C<NOT IN> and is used in
2014 If the argument to C<-in> is an empty array, 'sqlfalse' is generated
2015 (by default : C<1=0>). Similarly, C<< -not_in => [] >> generates
2016 'sqltrue' (by default : C<1=1>).
2018 In addition to the array you can supply a chunk of literal sql or
2019 literal sql with bind:
2022 customer => { -in => \[
2023 'SELECT cust_id FROM cust WHERE balance > ?',
2026 status => { -in => \'SELECT status_codes FROM states' },
2032 customer IN ( SELECT cust_id FROM cust WHERE balance > ? )
2033 AND status IN ( SELECT status_codes FROM states )
2039 Another pair of operators is C<-between> and C<-not_between>,
2040 used with an arrayref of two values:
2044 completion_date => {
2045 -not_between => ['2002-10-01', '2003-02-06']
2051 WHERE user = ? AND completion_date NOT BETWEEN ( ? AND ? )
2053 Just like with C<-in> all plausible combinations of literal SQL
2057 start0 => { -between => [ 1, 2 ] },
2058 start1 => { -between => \["? AND ?", 1, 2] },
2059 start2 => { -between => \"lower(x) AND upper(y)" },
2060 start3 => { -between => [
2062 \["upper(?)", 'stuff' ],
2069 ( start0 BETWEEN ? AND ? )
2070 AND ( start1 BETWEEN ? AND ? )
2071 AND ( start2 BETWEEN lower(x) AND upper(y) )
2072 AND ( start3 BETWEEN lower(x) AND upper(?) )
2074 @bind = (1, 2, 1, 2, 'stuff');
2077 These are the two builtin "special operators"; but the
2078 list can be expanded : see section L</"SPECIAL OPERATORS"> below.
2080 =head2 Unary operators: bool
2082 If you wish to test against boolean columns or functions within your
2083 database you can use the C<-bool> and C<-not_bool> operators. For
2084 example to test the column C<is_user> being true and the column
2085 <is_enabled> being false you would use:-
2089 -not_bool => 'is_enabled',
2094 WHERE is_user AND NOT is_enabled
2096 If a more complex combination is required, testing more conditions,
2097 then you should use the and/or operators:-
2104 -not_bool => 'four',
2110 WHERE one AND two AND three AND NOT four
2113 =head2 Nested conditions, -and/-or prefixes
2115 So far, we've seen how multiple conditions are joined with a top-level
2116 C<AND>. We can change this by putting the different conditions we want in
2117 hashes and then putting those hashes in an array. For example:
2122 status => { -like => ['pending%', 'dispatched'] },
2126 status => 'unassigned',
2130 This data structure would create the following:
2132 $stmt = "WHERE ( user = ? AND ( status LIKE ? OR status LIKE ? ) )
2133 OR ( user = ? AND status = ? ) )";
2134 @bind = ('nwiger', 'pending', 'dispatched', 'robot', 'unassigned');
2137 There is also a special C<-nest>
2138 operator which adds an additional set of parens, to create a subquery.
2139 For example, to get something like this:
2141 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND ( workhrs > ? OR geo = ? )";
2142 @bind = ('nwiger', '20', 'ASIA');
2148 -nest => [ workhrs => {'>', 20}, geo => 'ASIA' ],
2152 Finally, clauses in hashrefs or arrayrefs can be
2153 prefixed with an C<-and> or C<-or> to change the logic
2160 -and => [workhrs => {'>', 20}, geo => 'ASIA' ],
2161 -and => [workhrs => {'<', 50}, geo => 'EURO' ]
2168 WHERE ( user = ? AND
2169 ( ( workhrs > ? AND geo = ? )
2170 OR ( workhrs < ? AND geo = ? ) ) )
2173 =head2 Algebraic inconsistency, for historical reasons
2175 C<Important note>: when connecting several conditions, the C<-and->|C<-or>
2176 operator goes C<outside> of the nested structure; whereas when connecting
2177 several constraints on one column, the C<-and> operator goes
2178 C<inside> the arrayref. Here is an example combining both features :
2181 -and => [a => 1, b => 2],
2182 -or => [c => 3, d => 4],
2183 e => [-and => {-like => 'foo%'}, {-like => '%bar'} ]
2188 WHERE ( ( ( a = ? AND b = ? )
2189 OR ( c = ? OR d = ? )
2190 OR ( e LIKE ? AND e LIKE ? ) ) )
2192 This difference in syntax is unfortunate but must be preserved for
2193 historical reasons. So be careful : the two examples below would
2194 seem algebraically equivalent, but they are not
2196 {col => [-and => {-like => 'foo%'}, {-like => '%bar'}]}
2197 # yields : WHERE ( ( col LIKE ? AND col LIKE ? ) )
2199 [-and => {col => {-like => 'foo%'}, {col => {-like => '%bar'}}]]
2200 # yields : WHERE ( ( col LIKE ? OR col LIKE ? ) )
2205 Finally, sometimes only literal SQL will do. If you want to include
2206 literal SQL verbatim, you can specify it as a scalar reference, namely:
2208 my $inn = 'is Not Null';
2210 priority => { '<', 2 },
2216 $stmt = "WHERE priority < ? AND requestor is Not Null";
2219 Note that in this example, you only get one bind parameter back, since
2220 the verbatim SQL is passed as part of the statement.
2222 Of course, just to prove a point, the above can also be accomplished
2226 priority => { '<', 2 },
2227 requestor => { '!=', undef },
2233 Conditions on boolean columns can be expressed in the same way, passing
2234 a reference to an empty string, however using liternal SQL in this way
2235 is deprecated - the preferred method is to use the boolean operators -
2236 see L</"Unary operators: bool"> :
2239 priority => { '<', 2 },
2245 $stmt = "WHERE priority < ? AND is_ready";
2249 =head2 Literal SQL with placeholders and bind values (subqueries)
2251 If the literal SQL to be inserted has placeholders and bind values,
2252 use a reference to an arrayref (yes this is a double reference --
2253 not so common, but perfectly legal Perl). For example, to find a date
2254 in Postgres you can use something like this:
2257 date_column => \[q/= date '2008-09-30' - ?::integer/, 10/]
2262 $stmt = "WHERE ( date_column = date '2008-09-30' - ?::integer )"
2265 Note that you must pass the bind values in the same format as they are returned
2266 by L</where>. That means that if you set L</bindtype> to C<columns>, you must
2267 provide the bind values in the C<< [ column_meta => value ] >> format, where
2268 C<column_meta> is an opaque scalar value; most commonly the column name, but
2269 you can use any scalar value (including references and blessed references),
2270 L<SQL::Abstract> will simply pass it through intact. So if C<bindtype> is set
2271 to C<columns> the above example will look like:
2274 date_column => \[q/= date '2008-09-30' - ?::integer/, [ dummy => 10 ]/]
2277 Literal SQL is especially useful for nesting parenthesized clauses in the
2278 main SQL query. Here is a first example :
2280 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind) = ("SELECT c1 FROM t1 WHERE c2 < ? AND c3 LIKE ?",
2284 bar => \["IN ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
2289 $stmt = "WHERE (foo = ? AND bar IN (SELECT c1 FROM t1
2290 WHERE c2 < ? AND c3 LIKE ?))";
2291 @bind = (1234, 100, "foo%");
2293 Other subquery operators, like for example C<"E<gt> ALL"> or C<"NOT IN">,
2294 are expressed in the same way. Of course the C<$sub_stmt> and
2295 its associated bind values can be generated through a former call
2298 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind)
2299 = $sql->select("t1", "c1", {c2 => {"<" => 100},
2300 c3 => {-like => "foo%"}});
2303 bar => \["> ALL ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
2306 In the examples above, the subquery was used as an operator on a column;
2307 but the same principle also applies for a clause within the main C<%where>
2308 hash, like an EXISTS subquery :
2310 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind)
2311 = $sql->select("t1", "*", {c1 => 1, c2 => \"> t0.c0"});
2314 -nest => \["EXISTS ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
2319 $stmt = "WHERE (foo = ? AND EXISTS (SELECT * FROM t1
2320 WHERE c1 = ? AND c2 > t0.c0))";
2324 Observe that the condition on C<c2> in the subquery refers to
2325 column C<t0.c0> of the main query : this is I<not> a bind
2326 value, so we have to express it through a scalar ref.
2327 Writing C<< c2 => {">" => "t0.c0"} >> would have generated
2328 C<< c2 > ? >> with bind value C<"t0.c0"> ... not exactly
2329 what we wanted here.
2331 Another use of the subquery technique is when some SQL clauses need
2332 parentheses, as it often occurs with some proprietary SQL extensions
2333 like for example fulltext expressions, geospatial expressions,
2334 NATIVE clauses, etc. Here is an example of a fulltext query in MySQL :
2337 -nest => \["MATCH (col1, col2) AGAINST (?)" => qw/apples/]
2340 Finally, here is an example where a subquery is used
2341 for expressing unary negation:
2343 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind)
2344 = $sql->where({age => [{"<" => 10}, {">" => 20}]});
2345 $sub_stmt =~ s/^ where //i; # don't want "WHERE" in the subclause
2347 lname => {like => '%son%'},
2348 -nest => \["NOT ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
2353 $stmt = "lname LIKE ? AND NOT ( age < ? OR age > ? )"
2354 @bind = ('%son%', 10, 20)
2360 These pages could go on for a while, since the nesting of the data
2361 structures this module can handle are pretty much unlimited (the
2362 module implements the C<WHERE> expansion as a recursive function
2363 internally). Your best bet is to "play around" with the module a
2364 little to see how the data structures behave, and choose the best
2365 format for your data based on that.
2367 And of course, all the values above will probably be replaced with
2368 variables gotten from forms or the command line. After all, if you
2369 knew everything ahead of time, you wouldn't have to worry about
2370 dynamically-generating SQL and could just hardwire it into your
2376 =head1 ORDER BY CLAUSES
2378 Some functions take an order by clause. This can either be a scalar (just a
2379 column name,) a hash of C<< { -desc => 'col' } >> or C<< { -asc => 'col' } >>,
2380 or an array of either of the two previous forms. Examples:
2382 Given | Will Generate
2383 ----------------------------------------------------------
2385 \'colA DESC' | ORDER BY colA DESC
2387 'colA' | ORDER BY colA
2389 [qw/colA colB/] | ORDER BY colA, colB
2391 {-asc => 'colA'} | ORDER BY colA ASC
2393 {-desc => 'colB'} | ORDER BY colB DESC
2395 ['colA', {-asc => 'colB'}] | ORDER BY colA, colB ASC
2397 { -asc => [qw/colA colB] } | ORDER BY colA ASC, colB ASC
2400 { -asc => 'colA' }, | ORDER BY colA ASC, colB DESC,
2401 { -desc => [qw/colB/], | colC ASC, colD ASC
2402 { -asc => [qw/colC colD/],|
2404 ===========================================================
2408 =head1 SPECIAL OPERATORS
2410 my $sqlmaker = SQL::Abstract->new(special_ops => [
2414 my ($self, $field, $op, $arg) = @_;
2420 handler => 'method_name',
2424 A "special operator" is a SQL syntactic clause that can be
2425 applied to a field, instead of a usual binary operator.
2428 WHERE field IN (?, ?, ?)
2429 WHERE field BETWEEN ? AND ?
2430 WHERE MATCH(field) AGAINST (?, ?)
2432 Special operators IN and BETWEEN are fairly standard and therefore
2433 are builtin within C<SQL::Abstract> (as the overridable methods
2434 C<_where_field_IN> and C<_where_field_BETWEEN>). For other operators,
2435 like the MATCH .. AGAINST example above which is specific to MySQL,
2436 you can write your own operator handlers - supply a C<special_ops>
2437 argument to the C<new> method. That argument takes an arrayref of
2438 operator definitions; each operator definition is a hashref with two
2445 the regular expression to match the operator
2449 Either a coderef or a plain scalar method name. In both cases
2450 the expected return is C<< ($sql, @bind) >>.
2452 When supplied with a method name, it is simply called on the
2453 L<SQL::Abstract/> object as:
2455 $self->$method_name ($field, $op, $arg)
2459 $op is the part that matched the handler regex
2460 $field is the LHS of the operator
2463 When supplied with a coderef, it is called as:
2465 $coderef->($self, $field, $op, $arg)
2470 For example, here is an implementation
2471 of the MATCH .. AGAINST syntax for MySQL
2473 my $sqlmaker = SQL::Abstract->new(special_ops => [
2475 # special op for MySql MATCH (field) AGAINST(word1, word2, ...)
2476 {regex => qr/^match$/i,
2478 my ($self, $field, $op, $arg) = @_;
2479 $arg = [$arg] if not ref $arg;
2480 my $label = $self->_quote($field);
2481 my ($placeholder) = $self->_convert('?');
2482 my $placeholders = join ", ", (($placeholder) x @$arg);
2483 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('match') . " ($label) "
2484 . $self->_sqlcase('against') . " ($placeholders) ";
2485 my @bind = $self->_bindtype($field, @$arg);
2486 return ($sql, @bind);
2493 =head1 UNARY OPERATORS
2495 my $sqlmaker = SQL::Abstract->new(unary_ops => [
2499 my ($self, $op, $arg) = @_;
2505 handler => 'method_name',
2509 A "unary operator" is a SQL syntactic clause that can be
2510 applied to a field - the operator goes before the field
2512 You can write your own operator handlers - supply a C<unary_ops>
2513 argument to the C<new> method. That argument takes an arrayref of
2514 operator definitions; each operator definition is a hashref with two
2521 the regular expression to match the operator
2525 Either a coderef or a plain scalar method name. In both cases
2526 the expected return is C<< $sql >>.
2528 When supplied with a method name, it is simply called on the
2529 L<SQL::Abstract/> object as:
2531 $self->$method_name ($op, $arg)
2535 $op is the part that matched the handler regex
2536 $arg is the RHS or argument of the operator
2538 When supplied with a coderef, it is called as:
2540 $coderef->($self, $op, $arg)
2548 Thanks to some benchmarking by Mark Stosberg, it turns out that
2549 this module is many orders of magnitude faster than using C<DBIx::Abstract>.
2550 I must admit this wasn't an intentional design issue, but it's a
2551 byproduct of the fact that you get to control your C<DBI> handles
2554 To maximize performance, use a code snippet like the following:
2556 # prepare a statement handle using the first row
2557 # and then reuse it for the rest of the rows
2559 for my $href (@array_of_hashrefs) {
2560 $stmt ||= $sql->insert('table', $href);
2561 $sth ||= $dbh->prepare($stmt);
2562 $sth->execute($sql->values($href));
2565 The reason this works is because the keys in your C<$href> are sorted
2566 internally by B<SQL::Abstract>. Thus, as long as your data retains
2567 the same structure, you only have to generate the SQL the first time
2568 around. On subsequent queries, simply use the C<values> function provided
2569 by this module to return your values in the correct order.
2574 If you use my C<CGI::FormBuilder> module at all, you'll hopefully
2575 really like this part (I do, at least). Building up a complex query
2576 can be as simple as the following:
2580 use CGI::FormBuilder;
2583 my $form = CGI::FormBuilder->new(...);
2584 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new;
2586 if ($form->submitted) {
2587 my $field = $form->field;
2588 my $id = delete $field->{id};
2589 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->update('table', $field, {id => $id});
2592 Of course, you would still have to connect using C<DBI> to run the
2593 query, but the point is that if you make your form look like your
2594 table, the actual query script can be extremely simplistic.
2596 If you're B<REALLY> lazy (I am), check out C<HTML::QuickTable> for
2597 a fast interface to returning and formatting data. I frequently
2598 use these three modules together to write complex database query
2599 apps in under 50 lines.
2604 Version 1.50 was a major internal refactoring of C<SQL::Abstract>.
2605 Great care has been taken to preserve the I<published> behavior
2606 documented in previous versions in the 1.* family; however,
2607 some features that were previously undocumented, or behaved
2608 differently from the documentation, had to be changed in order
2609 to clarify the semantics. Hence, client code that was relying
2610 on some dark areas of C<SQL::Abstract> v1.*
2611 B<might behave differently> in v1.50.
2613 The main changes are :
2619 support for literal SQL through the C<< \ [$sql, bind] >> syntax.
2623 support for the { operator => \"..." } construct (to embed literal SQL)
2627 support for the { operator => \["...", @bind] } construct (to embed literal SQL with bind values)
2631 optional support for L<array datatypes|/"Inserting and Updating Arrays">
2635 defensive programming : check arguments
2639 fixed bug with global logic, which was previously implemented
2640 through global variables yielding side-effects. Prior versions would
2641 interpret C<< [ {cond1, cond2}, [cond3, cond4] ] >>
2642 as C<< "(cond1 AND cond2) OR (cond3 AND cond4)" >>.
2643 Now this is interpreted
2644 as C<< "(cond1 AND cond2) OR (cond3 OR cond4)" >>.
2649 fixed semantics of _bindtype on array args
2653 dropped the C<_anoncopy> of the %where tree. No longer necessary,
2654 we just avoid shifting arrays within that tree.
2658 dropped the C<_modlogic> function
2664 =head1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
2666 There are a number of individuals that have really helped out with
2667 this module. Unfortunately, most of them submitted bugs via CPAN
2668 so I have no idea who they are! But the people I do know are:
2670 Ash Berlin (order_by hash term support)
2671 Matt Trout (DBIx::Class support)
2672 Mark Stosberg (benchmarking)
2673 Chas Owens (initial "IN" operator support)
2674 Philip Collins (per-field SQL functions)
2675 Eric Kolve (hashref "AND" support)
2676 Mike Fragassi (enhancements to "BETWEEN" and "LIKE")
2677 Dan Kubb (support for "quote_char" and "name_sep")
2678 Guillermo Roditi (patch to cleanup "IN" and "BETWEEN", fix and tests for _order_by)
2679 Laurent Dami (internal refactoring, multiple -nest, extensible list of special operators, literal SQL)
2680 Norbert Buchmuller (support for literal SQL in hashpair, misc. fixes & tests)
2681 Peter Rabbitson (rewrite of SQLA::Test, misc. fixes & tests)
2682 Oliver Charles (support for "RETURNING" after "INSERT")
2688 L<DBIx::Class>, L<DBIx::Abstract>, L<CGI::FormBuilder>, L<HTML::QuickTable>.
2692 Copyright (c) 2001-2007 Nathan Wiger <nwiger@cpan.org>. All Rights Reserved.
2694 This module is actively maintained by Matt Trout <mst@shadowcatsystems.co.uk>
2696 For support, your best bet is to try the C<DBIx::Class> users mailing list.
2697 While not an official support venue, C<DBIx::Class> makes heavy use of
2698 C<SQL::Abstract>, and as such list members there are very familiar with
2699 how to create queries.
2703 This module is free software; you may copy this under the same
2704 terms as perl itself (either the GNU General Public License or
2705 the Artistic License)