1 package SQL::Abstract; # see doc at end of file
3 # LDNOTE : this code is heavy refactoring from original SQLA.
4 # Several design decisions will need discussion during
5 # the test / diffusion / acceptance phase; those are marked with flag
6 # 'LDNOTE' (note by laurent.dami AT free.fr)
11 use List::Util qw/first/;
12 use Scalar::Util qw/blessed/;
14 #======================================================================
16 #======================================================================
18 our $VERSION = '1.61';
20 # This would confuse some packagers
21 #$VERSION = eval $VERSION; # numify for warning-free dev releases
25 # special operators (-in, -between). May be extended/overridden by user.
26 # See section WHERE: BUILTIN SPECIAL OPERATORS below for implementation
27 my @BUILTIN_SPECIAL_OPS = (
28 {regex => qr/^(not )?between$/i, handler => '_where_field_BETWEEN'},
29 {regex => qr/^(not )?in$/i, handler => '_where_field_IN'},
32 # unaryish operators - key maps to handler
33 my @BUILTIN_UNARY_OPS = (
34 # the digits are backcompat stuff
35 { regex => qr/^and (?: \s? \d+ )? $/xi, handler => '_where_op_ANDOR' },
36 { regex => qr/^or (?: \s? \d+ )? $/xi, handler => '_where_op_ANDOR' },
37 { regex => qr/^nest (?: \s? \d+ )? $/xi, handler => '_where_op_NEST' },
38 { regex => qr/^ (?: not \s )? bool $/xi, handler => '_where_op_BOOL' },
41 #======================================================================
42 # DEBUGGING AND ERROR REPORTING
43 #======================================================================
46 return unless $_[0]->{debug}; shift; # a little faster
47 my $func = (caller(1))[3];
48 warn "[$func] ", @_, "\n";
52 my($func) = (caller(1))[3];
53 carp "[$func] Warning: ", @_;
57 my($func) = (caller(1))[3];
58 croak "[$func] Fatal: ", @_;
62 #======================================================================
64 #======================================================================
68 my $class = ref($self) || $self;
69 my %opt = (ref $_[0] eq 'HASH') ? %{$_[0]} : @_;
71 # choose our case by keeping an option around
72 delete $opt{case} if $opt{case} && $opt{case} ne 'lower';
74 # default logic for interpreting arrayrefs
75 $opt{logic} = $opt{logic} ? uc $opt{logic} : 'OR';
77 # how to return bind vars
78 # LDNOTE: changed nwiger code : why this 'delete' ??
79 # $opt{bindtype} ||= delete($opt{bind_type}) || 'normal';
80 $opt{bindtype} ||= 'normal';
82 # default comparison is "=", but can be overridden
85 # generic SQL comparison operators
86 my $anchored_cmp_ops = join ('|', map { '^' . $_ . '$' } (
87 '(?:is \s+)? (?:not \s+)? like',
89 (map { quotemeta($_) } (qw/ < > != <> = <= >= /) ),
91 $opt{cmp_ops} = qr/$anchored_cmp_ops/ix;
93 # try to recognize which are the 'equality' and 'unequality' ops
94 # (temporary quickfix, should go through a more seasoned API)
95 $opt{equality_op} = qr/^(\Q$opt{cmp}\E|is|(is\s+)?like)$/i;
96 $opt{inequality_op} = qr/^(!=|<>|(is\s+)?not(\s+like)?)$/i;
99 $opt{sqltrue} ||= '1=1';
100 $opt{sqlfalse} ||= '0=1';
103 $opt{special_ops} ||= [];
104 push @{$opt{special_ops}}, @BUILTIN_SPECIAL_OPS;
107 $opt{unary_ops} ||= [];
108 push @{$opt{unary_ops}}, @BUILTIN_UNARY_OPS;
110 return bless \%opt, $class;
115 #======================================================================
117 #======================================================================
121 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
122 my $data = shift || return;
125 my $method = $self->_METHOD_FOR_refkind("_insert", $data);
126 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->$method($data);
127 $sql = join " ", $self->_sqlcase('insert into'), $table, $sql;
129 if (my $ret = $options->{returning}) {
130 $sql .= $self->_insert_returning ($ret);
133 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
136 sub _insert_returning {
137 my ($self, $fields) = @_;
139 my $f = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($fields, {
140 ARRAYREF => sub {join ', ', map { $self->_quote($_) } @$fields;},
141 SCALAR => sub {$self->_quote($fields)},
142 SCALARREF => sub {$$fields},
144 return join (' ', $self->_sqlcase(' returning'), $f);
147 sub _insert_HASHREF { # explicit list of fields and then values
148 my ($self, $data) = @_;
150 my @fields = sort keys %$data;
152 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_insert_values($data);
155 $_ = $self->_quote($_) foreach @fields;
156 $sql = "( ".join(", ", @fields).") ".$sql;
158 return ($sql, @bind);
161 sub _insert_ARRAYREF { # just generate values(?,?) part (no list of fields)
162 my ($self, $data) = @_;
164 # no names (arrayref) so can't generate bindtype
165 $self->{bindtype} ne 'columns'
166 or belch "can't do 'columns' bindtype when called with arrayref";
168 # fold the list of values into a hash of column name - value pairs
169 # (where the column names are artificially generated, and their
170 # lexicographical ordering keep the ordering of the original list)
171 my $i = "a"; # incremented values will be in lexicographical order
172 my $data_in_hash = { map { ($i++ => $_) } @$data };
174 return $self->_insert_values($data_in_hash);
177 sub _insert_ARRAYREFREF { # literal SQL with bind
178 my ($self, $data) = @_;
180 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$data};
181 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
183 return ($sql, @bind);
187 sub _insert_SCALARREF { # literal SQL without bind
188 my ($self, $data) = @_;
194 my ($self, $data) = @_;
196 my (@values, @all_bind);
197 foreach my $column (sort keys %$data) {
198 my $v = $data->{$column};
200 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
203 if ($self->{array_datatypes}) { # if array datatype are activated
205 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($column, $v);
207 else { # else literal SQL with bind
208 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
209 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
211 push @all_bind, @bind;
215 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
216 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$v};
217 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
219 push @all_bind, @bind;
222 # THINK : anything useful to do with a HASHREF ?
223 HASHREF => sub { # (nothing, but old SQLA passed it through)
224 #TODO in SQLA >= 2.0 it will die instead
225 belch "HASH ref as bind value in insert is not supported";
227 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($column, $v);
230 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL without bind
234 SCALAR_or_UNDEF => sub {
236 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($column, $v);
243 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('values')." ( ".join(", ", @values)." )";
244 return ($sql, @all_bind);
249 #======================================================================
251 #======================================================================
256 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
257 my $data = shift || return;
260 # first build the 'SET' part of the sql statement
261 my (@set, @all_bind);
262 puke "Unsupported data type specified to \$sql->update"
263 unless ref $data eq 'HASH';
265 for my $k (sort keys %$data) {
268 my $label = $self->_quote($k);
270 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
272 if ($self->{array_datatypes}) { # array datatype
273 push @set, "$label = ?";
274 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
276 else { # literal SQL with bind
277 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
278 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
279 push @set, "$label = $sql";
280 push @all_bind, @bind;
283 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
284 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$v};
285 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
286 push @set, "$label = $sql";
287 push @all_bind, @bind;
289 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL without bind
290 push @set, "$label = $$v";
292 SCALAR_or_UNDEF => sub {
293 push @set, "$label = ?";
294 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
300 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('update') . " $table " . $self->_sqlcase('set ')
304 my($where_sql, @where_bind) = $self->where($where);
306 push @all_bind, @where_bind;
309 return wantarray ? ($sql, @all_bind) : $sql;
315 #======================================================================
317 #======================================================================
322 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
323 my $fields = shift || '*';
327 my($where_sql, @bind) = $self->where($where, $order);
329 my $f = (ref $fields eq 'ARRAY') ? join ', ', map { $self->_quote($_) } @$fields
331 my $sql = join(' ', $self->_sqlcase('select'), $f,
332 $self->_sqlcase('from'), $table)
335 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
338 #======================================================================
340 #======================================================================
345 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
349 my($where_sql, @bind) = $self->where($where);
350 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('delete from') . " $table" . $where_sql;
352 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
356 #======================================================================
358 #======================================================================
362 # Finally, a separate routine just to handle WHERE clauses
364 my ($self, $where, $order) = @_;
367 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_recurse_where($where);
368 $sql = $sql ? $self->_sqlcase(' where ') . "( $sql )" : '';
372 $sql .= $self->_order_by($order);
375 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
380 my ($self, $where, $logic) = @_;
382 # dispatch on appropriate method according to refkind of $where
383 my $method = $self->_METHOD_FOR_refkind("_where", $where);
386 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->$method($where, $logic);
388 # DBIx::Class directly calls _recurse_where in scalar context, so
389 # we must implement it, even if not in the official API
390 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
395 #======================================================================
396 # WHERE: top-level ARRAYREF
397 #======================================================================
400 sub _where_ARRAYREF {
401 my ($self, $where, $logic) = @_;
403 $logic = uc($logic || $self->{logic});
404 $logic eq 'AND' or $logic eq 'OR' or puke "unknown logic: $logic";
406 my @clauses = @$where;
408 my (@sql_clauses, @all_bind);
409 # need to use while() so can shift() for pairs
410 while (my $el = shift @clauses) {
412 # switch according to kind of $el and get corresponding ($sql, @bind)
413 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($el, {
415 # skip empty elements, otherwise get invalid trailing AND stuff
416 ARRAYREF => sub {$self->_recurse_where($el) if @$el},
418 ARRAYREFREF => sub { @{${$el}} if @{${$el}}},
420 HASHREF => sub {$self->_recurse_where($el, 'and') if %$el},
421 # LDNOTE : previous SQLA code for hashrefs was creating a dirty
422 # side-effect: the first hashref within an array would change
423 # the global logic to 'AND'. So [ {cond1, cond2}, [cond3, cond4] ]
424 # was interpreted as "(cond1 AND cond2) OR (cond3 AND cond4)",
425 # whereas it should be "(cond1 AND cond2) OR (cond3 OR cond4)".
427 SCALARREF => sub { ($$el); },
429 SCALAR => sub {# top-level arrayref with scalars, recurse in pairs
430 $self->_recurse_where({$el => shift(@clauses)})},
432 UNDEF => sub {puke "not supported : UNDEF in arrayref" },
436 push @sql_clauses, $sql;
437 push @all_bind, @bind;
441 return $self->_join_sql_clauses($logic, \@sql_clauses, \@all_bind);
444 #======================================================================
445 # WHERE: top-level ARRAYREFREF
446 #======================================================================
448 sub _where_ARRAYREFREF {
449 my ($self, $where) = @_;
450 my ($sql, @bind) = @{${$where}};
452 return ($sql, @bind);
455 #======================================================================
456 # WHERE: top-level HASHREF
457 #======================================================================
460 my ($self, $where) = @_;
461 my (@sql_clauses, @all_bind);
463 for my $k (sort keys %$where) {
464 my $v = $where->{$k};
466 # ($k => $v) is either a special unary op or a regular hashpair
467 my ($sql, @bind) = do {
469 # put the operator in canonical form
471 $op =~ s/^-//; # remove initial dash
472 $op =~ s/[_\t ]+/ /g; # underscores and whitespace become single spaces
473 $op =~ s/^\s+|\s+$//g;# remove leading/trailing space
475 $self->_debug("Unary OP(-$op) within hashref, recursing...");
477 my $op_entry = first {$op =~ $_->{regex}} @{$self->{unary_ops}};
478 if (my $handler = $op_entry->{handler}) {
479 if (not ref $handler) {
480 if ($op =~ s/\s?\d+$//) {
481 belch 'Use of [and|or|nest]_N modifiers is deprecated and will be removed in SQLA v2.0. '
482 . "You probably wanted ...-and => [ -$op => COND1, -$op => COND2 ... ]";
484 $self->$handler ($op, $v);
486 elsif (ref $handler eq 'CODE') {
487 $handler->($self, $op, $v);
490 puke "Illegal handler for operator $k - expecting a method name or a coderef";
494 $self->debug("Generic unary OP: $k - recursing as function");
495 $self->_where_func_generic ($op, $v);
499 my $method = $self->_METHOD_FOR_refkind("_where_hashpair", $v);
500 $self->$method($k, $v);
504 push @sql_clauses, $sql;
505 push @all_bind, @bind;
508 return $self->_join_sql_clauses('and', \@sql_clauses, \@all_bind);
511 sub _where_func_generic {
512 my ($self, $op, $rhs) = @_;
514 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind ($rhs, {
516 ($self->_convert('?'), $self->_bindtype('xxx', $rhs) );
519 $self->_recurse_where ($rhs)
523 $sql = sprintf ('%s%s',
524 $self->_sqlcase($op),
525 ($op =~ $self->{cmp_ops}) ? " $sql" : "( $sql )",
528 return ($sql, @bind);
531 sub _where_op_ANDOR {
532 my ($self, $op, $v) = @_;
534 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
536 return $self->_where_ARRAYREF($v, $op);
540 return ( $op =~ /^or/i )
541 ? $self->_where_ARRAYREF( [ map { $_ => $v->{$_} } ( sort keys %$v ) ], $op )
542 : $self->_where_HASHREF($v);
546 puke "-$op => \\\$scalar not supported, use -nest => ...";
550 puke "-$op => \\[..] not supported, use -nest => ...";
553 SCALAR => sub { # permissively interpreted as SQL
554 puke "-$op => 'scalar' not supported, use -nest => \\'scalar'";
558 puke "-$op => undef not supported";
564 my ($self, $op, $v) = @_;
566 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
568 SCALAR => sub { # permissively interpreted as SQL
569 belch "literal SQL should be -nest => \\'scalar' "
570 . "instead of -nest => 'scalar' ";
575 puke "-$op => undef not supported";
579 $self->_recurse_where ($v);
587 my ($self, $op, $v) = @_;
589 my ( $prefix, $suffix ) = ( $op =~ /\bnot\b/i )
593 my ($sql, @bind) = do {
594 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
595 SCALAR => sub { # interpreted as SQL column
596 $self->_convert($self->_quote($v));
600 puke "-$op => undef not supported";
604 $self->_recurse_where ($v);
610 join ('', $prefix, $sql, $suffix),
616 sub _where_hashpair_ARRAYREF {
617 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
620 my @v = @$v; # need copy because of shift below
621 $self->_debug("ARRAY($k) means distribute over elements");
623 # put apart first element if it is an operator (-and, -or)
625 (defined $v[0] && $v[0] =~ /^ - (?: AND|OR ) $/ix)
629 my @distributed = map { {$k => $_} } @v;
632 $self->_debug("OP($op) reinjected into the distributed array");
633 unshift @distributed, $op;
636 my $logic = $op ? substr($op, 1) : '';
638 return $self->_recurse_where(\@distributed, $logic);
641 # LDNOTE : not sure of this one. What does "distribute over nothing" mean?
642 $self->_debug("empty ARRAY($k) means 0=1");
643 return ($self->{sqlfalse});
647 sub _where_hashpair_HASHREF {
648 my ($self, $k, $v, $logic) = @_;
651 my ($all_sql, @all_bind);
653 for my $orig_op (sort keys %$v) {
654 my $val = $v->{$orig_op};
656 # put the operator in canonical form
658 $op =~ s/^-//; # remove initial dash
659 $op =~ s/[_\t ]+/ /g; # underscores and whitespace become single spaces
660 $op =~ s/^\s+|\s+$//g;# remove leading/trailing space
664 # CASE: col-value logic modifiers
665 if ( $orig_op =~ /^ \- (and|or) $/xi ) {
666 ($sql, @bind) = $self->_where_hashpair_HASHREF($k, $val, $1);
668 # CASE: special operators like -in or -between
669 elsif ( my $special_op = first {$op =~ $_->{regex}} @{$self->{special_ops}} ) {
670 my $handler = $special_op->{handler};
672 puke "No handler supplied for special operator $orig_op";
674 elsif (not ref $handler) {
675 ($sql, @bind) = $self->$handler ($k, $op, $val);
677 elsif (ref $handler eq 'CODE') {
678 ($sql, @bind) = $handler->($self, $k, $op, $val);
681 puke "Illegal handler for special operator $orig_op - expecting a method name or a coderef";
685 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($val, {
687 ARRAYREF => sub { # CASE: col => {op => \@vals}
688 ($sql, @bind) = $self->_where_field_op_ARRAYREF($k, $op, $val);
691 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # CASE: col => {op => \[$sql, @bind]} (literal SQL with bind)
692 my ($sub_sql, @sub_bind) = @$$val;
693 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@sub_bind);
694 $sql = join ' ', $self->_convert($self->_quote($k)),
695 $self->_sqlcase($op),
700 UNDEF => sub { # CASE: col => {op => undef} : sql "IS (NOT)? NULL"
701 my $is = ($op =~ $self->{equality_op}) ? 'is' :
702 ($op =~ $self->{inequality_op}) ? 'is not' :
703 puke "unexpected operator '$orig_op' with undef operand";
704 $sql = $self->_quote($k) . $self->_sqlcase(" $is null");
707 FALLBACK => sub { # CASE: col => {op/func => $stuff}
708 ($sql, @bind) = $self->_where_func_generic ($op, $val);
709 $sql = join ' ', $self->_convert($self->_quote($k)), $sql;
714 ($all_sql) = (defined $all_sql and $all_sql) ? $self->_join_sql_clauses($logic, [$all_sql, $sql], []) : $sql;
715 push @all_bind, @bind;
717 return ($all_sql, @all_bind);
722 sub _where_field_op_ARRAYREF {
723 my ($self, $k, $op, $vals) = @_;
725 my @vals = @$vals; #always work on a copy
728 $self->_debug(sprintf '%s means multiple elements: [ %s ]',
730 join (', ', map { defined $_ ? "'$_'" : 'NULL' } @vals ),
733 # see if the first element is an -and/-or op
735 if (defined $vals[0] && $vals[0] =~ /^ - ( AND|OR ) $/ix) {
740 # distribute $op over each remaining member of @vals, append logic if exists
741 return $self->_recurse_where([map { {$k => {$op, $_}} } @vals], $logic);
743 # LDNOTE : had planned to change the distribution logic when
744 # $op =~ $self->{inequality_op}, because of Morgan laws :
745 # with {field => {'!=' => [22, 33]}}, it would be ridiculous to generate
746 # WHERE field != 22 OR field != 33 : the user probably means
747 # WHERE field != 22 AND field != 33.
748 # To do this, replace the above to roughly :
749 # my $logic = ($op =~ $self->{inequality_op}) ? 'AND' : 'OR';
750 # return $self->_recurse_where([map { {$k => {$op, $_}} } @vals], $logic);
754 # try to DWIM on equality operators
755 # LDNOTE : not 100% sure this is the correct thing to do ...
756 return ($self->{sqlfalse}) if $op =~ $self->{equality_op};
757 return ($self->{sqltrue}) if $op =~ $self->{inequality_op};
760 puke "operator '$op' applied on an empty array (field '$k')";
765 sub _where_hashpair_SCALARREF {
766 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
767 $self->_debug("SCALAR($k) means literal SQL: $$v");
768 my $sql = $self->_quote($k) . " " . $$v;
772 # literal SQL with bind
773 sub _where_hashpair_ARRAYREFREF {
774 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
775 $self->_debug("REF($k) means literal SQL: @${$v}");
776 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$v};
777 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
778 $sql = $self->_quote($k) . " " . $sql;
779 return ($sql, @bind );
782 # literal SQL without bind
783 sub _where_hashpair_SCALAR {
784 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
785 $self->_debug("NOREF($k) means simple key=val: $k $self->{cmp} $v");
786 my $sql = join ' ', $self->_convert($self->_quote($k)),
787 $self->_sqlcase($self->{cmp}),
788 $self->_convert('?');
789 my @bind = $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
790 return ( $sql, @bind);
794 sub _where_hashpair_UNDEF {
795 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
796 $self->_debug("UNDEF($k) means IS NULL");
797 my $sql = $self->_quote($k) . $self->_sqlcase(' is null');
801 #======================================================================
802 # WHERE: TOP-LEVEL OTHERS (SCALARREF, SCALAR, UNDEF)
803 #======================================================================
806 sub _where_SCALARREF {
807 my ($self, $where) = @_;
810 $self->_debug("SCALAR(*top) means literal SQL: $$where");
816 my ($self, $where) = @_;
819 $self->_debug("NOREF(*top) means literal SQL: $where");
830 #======================================================================
831 # WHERE: BUILTIN SPECIAL OPERATORS (-in, -between)
832 #======================================================================
835 sub _where_field_BETWEEN {
836 my ($self, $k, $op, $vals) = @_;
838 my ($label, $and, $placeholder);
839 $label = $self->_convert($self->_quote($k));
840 $and = ' ' . $self->_sqlcase('and') . ' ';
841 $placeholder = $self->_convert('?');
842 $op = $self->_sqlcase($op);
844 my ($clause, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($vals, {
852 puke "special op 'between' accepts an arrayref with exactly two values"
855 my (@all_sql, @all_bind);
856 foreach my $val (@$vals) {
857 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($val, {
859 return ($placeholder, ($val));
862 return ($self->_convert($$val), ());
865 my ($sql, @bind) = @$$val;
866 return ($self->_convert($sql), @bind);
870 push @all_bind, @bind;
874 (join $and, @all_sql),
875 $self->_bindtype($k, @all_bind),
879 puke "special op 'between' accepts an arrayref with two values, or a single literal scalarref/arrayref-ref";
883 my $sql = "( $label $op $clause )";
888 sub _where_field_IN {
889 my ($self, $k, $op, $vals) = @_;
891 # backwards compatibility : if scalar, force into an arrayref
892 $vals = [$vals] if defined $vals && ! ref $vals;
894 my ($label) = $self->_convert($self->_quote($k));
895 my ($placeholder) = $self->_convert('?');
896 $op = $self->_sqlcase($op);
898 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($vals, {
899 ARRAYREF => sub { # list of choices
900 if (@$vals) { # nonempty list
901 my $placeholders = join ", ", (($placeholder) x @$vals);
902 my $sql = "$label $op ( $placeholders )";
903 my @bind = $self->_bindtype($k, @$vals);
905 return ($sql, @bind);
907 else { # empty list : some databases won't understand "IN ()", so DWIM
908 my $sql = ($op =~ /\bnot\b/i) ? $self->{sqltrue} : $self->{sqlfalse};
913 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL
914 my $sql = $self->_open_outer_paren ($$vals);
915 return ("$label $op ( $sql )");
917 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
918 my ($sql, @bind) = @$$vals;
919 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
920 $sql = $self->_open_outer_paren ($sql);
921 return ("$label $op ( $sql )", @bind);
925 puke "special op 'in' requires an arrayref (or scalarref/arrayref-ref)";
929 return ($sql, @bind);
932 # Some databases (SQLite) treat col IN (1, 2) different from
933 # col IN ( (1, 2) ). Use this to strip all outer parens while
934 # adding them back in the corresponding method
935 sub _open_outer_paren {
936 my ($self, $sql) = @_;
937 $sql = $1 while $sql =~ /^ \s* \( (.*) \) \s* $/xs;
942 #======================================================================
944 #======================================================================
947 my ($self, $arg) = @_;
950 for my $c ($self->_order_by_chunks ($arg) ) {
951 $self->_SWITCH_refkind ($c, {
952 SCALAR => sub { push @sql, $c },
953 ARRAYREF => sub { push @sql, shift @$c; push @bind, @$c },
959 $self->_sqlcase(' order by'),
965 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
968 sub _order_by_chunks {
969 my ($self, $arg) = @_;
971 return $self->_SWITCH_refkind($arg, {
974 map { $self->_order_by_chunks ($_ ) } @$arg;
977 ARRAYREFREF => sub { [ @$$arg ] },
979 SCALAR => sub {$self->_quote($arg)},
981 UNDEF => sub {return () },
983 SCALARREF => sub {$$arg}, # literal SQL, no quoting
986 # get first pair in hash
987 my ($key, $val) = each %$arg;
989 return () unless $key;
991 if ( (keys %$arg) > 1 or not $key =~ /^-(desc|asc)/i ) {
992 puke "hash passed to _order_by must have exactly one key (-desc or -asc)";
998 for my $c ($self->_order_by_chunks ($val)) {
1001 $self->_SWITCH_refkind ($c, {
1006 ($sql, @bind) = @$c;
1010 $sql = $sql . ' ' . $self->_sqlcase($direction);
1012 push @ret, [ $sql, @bind];
1021 #======================================================================
1022 # DATASOURCE (FOR NOW, JUST PLAIN TABLE OR LIST OF TABLES)
1023 #======================================================================
1028 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($from, {
1029 ARRAYREF => sub {join ', ', map { $self->_quote($_) } @$from;},
1030 SCALAR => sub {$self->_quote($from)},
1031 SCALARREF => sub {$$from},
1032 ARRAYREFREF => sub {join ', ', @$from;},
1037 #======================================================================
1039 #======================================================================
1045 $label or puke "can't quote an empty label";
1047 # left and right quote characters
1048 my ($ql, $qr, @other) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($self->{quote_char}, {
1049 SCALAR => sub {($self->{quote_char}, $self->{quote_char})},
1050 ARRAYREF => sub {@{$self->{quote_char}}},
1054 or puke "quote_char must be an arrayref of 2 values";
1056 # no quoting if no quoting chars
1057 $ql or return $label;
1059 # no quoting for literal SQL
1060 return $$label if ref($label) eq 'SCALAR';
1062 # separate table / column (if applicable)
1063 my $sep = $self->{name_sep} || '';
1064 my @to_quote = $sep ? split /\Q$sep\E/, $label : ($label);
1066 # do the quoting, except for "*" or for `table`.*
1067 my @quoted = map { $_ eq '*' ? $_: $ql.$_.$qr} @to_quote;
1069 # reassemble and return.
1070 return join $sep, @quoted;
1074 # Conversion, if applicable
1076 my ($self, $arg) = @_;
1078 # LDNOTE : modified the previous implementation below because
1079 # it was not consistent : the first "return" is always an array,
1080 # the second "return" is context-dependent. Anyway, _convert
1081 # seems always used with just a single argument, so make it a
1083 # return @_ unless $self->{convert};
1084 # my $conv = $self->_sqlcase($self->{convert});
1085 # my @ret = map { $conv.'('.$_.')' } @_;
1086 # return wantarray ? @ret : $ret[0];
1087 if ($self->{convert}) {
1088 my $conv = $self->_sqlcase($self->{convert});
1089 $arg = $conv.'('.$arg.')';
1097 my($col, @vals) = @_;
1099 #LDNOTE : changed original implementation below because it did not make
1100 # sense when bindtype eq 'columns' and @vals > 1.
1101 # return $self->{bindtype} eq 'columns' ? [ $col, @vals ] : @vals;
1103 return $self->{bindtype} eq 'columns' ? map {[$col, $_]} @vals : @vals;
1106 # Dies if any element of @bind is not in [colname => value] format
1107 # if bindtype is 'columns'.
1108 sub _assert_bindval_matches_bindtype {
1109 my ($self, @bind) = @_;
1111 if ($self->{bindtype} eq 'columns') {
1112 foreach my $val (@bind) {
1113 if (!defined $val || ref($val) ne 'ARRAY' || @$val != 2) {
1114 die "bindtype 'columns' selected, you need to pass: [column_name => bind_value]"
1120 sub _join_sql_clauses {
1121 my ($self, $logic, $clauses_aref, $bind_aref) = @_;
1123 if (@$clauses_aref > 1) {
1124 my $join = " " . $self->_sqlcase($logic) . " ";
1125 my $sql = '( ' . join($join, @$clauses_aref) . ' )';
1126 return ($sql, @$bind_aref);
1128 elsif (@$clauses_aref) {
1129 return ($clauses_aref->[0], @$bind_aref); # no parentheses
1132 return (); # if no SQL, ignore @$bind_aref
1137 # Fix SQL case, if so requested
1141 # LDNOTE: if $self->{case} is true, then it contains 'lower', so we
1142 # don't touch the argument ... crooked logic, but let's not change it!
1143 return $self->{case} ? $_[0] : uc($_[0]);
1147 #======================================================================
1148 # DISPATCHING FROM REFKIND
1149 #======================================================================
1152 my ($self, $data) = @_;
1158 # blessed objects are treated like scalars
1159 $ref = (blessed $data) ? '' : ref $data;
1160 $n_steps += 1 if $ref;
1161 last if $ref ne 'REF';
1165 my $base = $ref || (defined $data ? 'SCALAR' : 'UNDEF');
1167 return $base . ('REF' x $n_steps);
1173 my ($self, $data) = @_;
1174 my @try = ($self->_refkind($data));
1175 push @try, 'SCALAR_or_UNDEF' if $try[0] eq 'SCALAR' || $try[0] eq 'UNDEF';
1176 push @try, 'FALLBACK';
1180 sub _METHOD_FOR_refkind {
1181 my ($self, $meth_prefix, $data) = @_;
1182 my $method = first {$_} map {$self->can($meth_prefix."_".$_)}
1183 $self->_try_refkind($data)
1184 or puke "cannot dispatch on '$meth_prefix' for ".$self->_refkind($data);
1189 sub _SWITCH_refkind {
1190 my ($self, $data, $dispatch_table) = @_;
1192 my $coderef = first {$_} map {$dispatch_table->{$_}}
1193 $self->_try_refkind($data)
1194 or puke "no dispatch entry for ".$self->_refkind($data);
1201 #======================================================================
1202 # VALUES, GENERATE, AUTOLOAD
1203 #======================================================================
1205 # LDNOTE: original code from nwiger, didn't touch code in that section
1206 # I feel the AUTOLOAD stuff should not be the default, it should
1207 # only be activated on explicit demand by user.
1211 my $data = shift || return;
1212 puke "Argument to ", __PACKAGE__, "->values must be a \\%hash"
1213 unless ref $data eq 'HASH';
1216 foreach my $k ( sort keys %$data ) {
1217 my $v = $data->{$k};
1218 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
1220 if ($self->{array_datatypes}) { # array datatype
1221 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
1223 else { # literal SQL with bind
1224 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
1225 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1226 push @all_bind, @bind;
1229 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
1230 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$v};
1231 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1232 push @all_bind, @bind;
1234 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL without bind
1236 SCALAR_or_UNDEF => sub {
1237 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
1248 my(@sql, @sqlq, @sqlv);
1252 if ($ref eq 'HASH') {
1253 for my $k (sort keys %$_) {
1256 my $label = $self->_quote($k);
1257 if ($r eq 'ARRAY') {
1258 # literal SQL with bind
1259 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
1260 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1261 push @sqlq, "$label = $sql";
1263 } elsif ($r eq 'SCALAR') {
1264 # literal SQL without bind
1265 push @sqlq, "$label = $$v";
1267 push @sqlq, "$label = ?";
1268 push @sqlv, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
1271 push @sql, $self->_sqlcase('set'), join ', ', @sqlq;
1272 } elsif ($ref eq 'ARRAY') {
1273 # unlike insert(), assume these are ONLY the column names, i.e. for SQL
1276 if ($r eq 'ARRAY') { # literal SQL with bind
1277 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
1278 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1281 } elsif ($r eq 'SCALAR') { # literal SQL without bind
1282 # embedded literal SQL
1289 push @sql, '(' . join(', ', @sqlq) . ')';
1290 } elsif ($ref eq 'SCALAR') {
1294 # strings get case twiddled
1295 push @sql, $self->_sqlcase($_);
1299 my $sql = join ' ', @sql;
1301 # this is pretty tricky
1302 # if ask for an array, return ($stmt, @bind)
1303 # otherwise, s/?/shift @sqlv/ to put it inline
1305 return ($sql, @sqlv);
1307 1 while $sql =~ s/\?/my $d = shift(@sqlv);
1308 ref $d ? $d->[1] : $d/e;
1317 # This allows us to check for a local, then _form, attr
1319 my($name) = $AUTOLOAD =~ /.*::(.+)/;
1320 return $self->generate($name, @_);
1331 SQL::Abstract - Generate SQL from Perl data structures
1337 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new;
1339 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->select($table, \@fields, \%where, \@order);
1341 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert($table, \%fieldvals || \@values);
1343 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->update($table, \%fieldvals, \%where);
1345 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->delete($table, \%where);
1347 # Then, use these in your DBI statements
1348 my $sth = $dbh->prepare($stmt);
1349 $sth->execute(@bind);
1351 # Just generate the WHERE clause
1352 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->where(\%where, \@order);
1354 # Return values in the same order, for hashed queries
1355 # See PERFORMANCE section for more details
1356 my @bind = $sql->values(\%fieldvals);
1360 This module was inspired by the excellent L<DBIx::Abstract>.
1361 However, in using that module I found that what I really wanted
1362 to do was generate SQL, but still retain complete control over my
1363 statement handles and use the DBI interface. So, I set out to
1364 create an abstract SQL generation module.
1366 While based on the concepts used by L<DBIx::Abstract>, there are
1367 several important differences, especially when it comes to WHERE
1368 clauses. I have modified the concepts used to make the SQL easier
1369 to generate from Perl data structures and, IMO, more intuitive.
1370 The underlying idea is for this module to do what you mean, based
1371 on the data structures you provide it. The big advantage is that
1372 you don't have to modify your code every time your data changes,
1373 as this module figures it out.
1375 To begin with, an SQL INSERT is as easy as just specifying a hash
1376 of C<key=value> pairs:
1379 name => 'Jimbo Bobson',
1380 phone => '123-456-7890',
1381 address => '42 Sister Lane',
1382 city => 'St. Louis',
1383 state => 'Louisiana',
1386 The SQL can then be generated with this:
1388 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert('people', \%data);
1390 Which would give you something like this:
1392 $stmt = "INSERT INTO people
1393 (address, city, name, phone, state)
1394 VALUES (?, ?, ?, ?, ?)";
1395 @bind = ('42 Sister Lane', 'St. Louis', 'Jimbo Bobson',
1396 '123-456-7890', 'Louisiana');
1398 These are then used directly in your DBI code:
1400 my $sth = $dbh->prepare($stmt);
1401 $sth->execute(@bind);
1403 =head2 Inserting and Updating Arrays
1405 If your database has array types (like for example Postgres),
1406 activate the special option C<< array_datatypes => 1 >>
1407 when creating the C<SQL::Abstract> object.
1408 Then you may use an arrayref to insert and update database array types:
1410 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(array_datatypes => 1);
1412 planets => [qw/Mercury Venus Earth Mars/]
1415 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert('solar_system', \%data);
1419 $stmt = "INSERT INTO solar_system (planets) VALUES (?)"
1421 @bind = (['Mercury', 'Venus', 'Earth', 'Mars']);
1424 =head2 Inserting and Updating SQL
1426 In order to apply SQL functions to elements of your C<%data> you may
1427 specify a reference to an arrayref for the given hash value. For example,
1428 if you need to execute the Oracle C<to_date> function on a value, you can
1429 say something like this:
1433 date_entered => \["to_date(?,'MM/DD/YYYY')", "03/02/2003"],
1436 The first value in the array is the actual SQL. Any other values are
1437 optional and would be included in the bind values array. This gives
1440 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert('people', \%data);
1442 $stmt = "INSERT INTO people (name, date_entered)
1443 VALUES (?, to_date(?,'MM/DD/YYYY'))";
1444 @bind = ('Bill', '03/02/2003');
1446 An UPDATE is just as easy, all you change is the name of the function:
1448 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->update('people', \%data);
1450 Notice that your C<%data> isn't touched; the module will generate
1451 the appropriately quirky SQL for you automatically. Usually you'll
1452 want to specify a WHERE clause for your UPDATE, though, which is
1453 where handling C<%where> hashes comes in handy...
1455 =head2 Complex where statements
1457 This module can generate pretty complicated WHERE statements
1458 easily. For example, simple C<key=value> pairs are taken to mean
1459 equality, and if you want to see if a field is within a set
1460 of values, you can use an arrayref. Let's say we wanted to
1461 SELECT some data based on this criteria:
1464 requestor => 'inna',
1465 worker => ['nwiger', 'rcwe', 'sfz'],
1466 status => { '!=', 'completed' }
1469 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->select('tickets', '*', \%where);
1471 The above would give you something like this:
1473 $stmt = "SELECT * FROM tickets WHERE
1474 ( requestor = ? ) AND ( status != ? )
1475 AND ( worker = ? OR worker = ? OR worker = ? )";
1476 @bind = ('inna', 'completed', 'nwiger', 'rcwe', 'sfz');
1478 Which you could then use in DBI code like so:
1480 my $sth = $dbh->prepare($stmt);
1481 $sth->execute(@bind);
1487 The functions are simple. There's one for each major SQL operation,
1488 and a constructor you use first. The arguments are specified in a
1489 similar order to each function (table, then fields, then a where
1490 clause) to try and simplify things.
1495 =head2 new(option => 'value')
1497 The C<new()> function takes a list of options and values, and returns
1498 a new B<SQL::Abstract> object which can then be used to generate SQL
1499 through the methods below. The options accepted are:
1505 If set to 'lower', then SQL will be generated in all lowercase. By
1506 default SQL is generated in "textbook" case meaning something like:
1508 SELECT a_field FROM a_table WHERE some_field LIKE '%someval%'
1510 Any setting other than 'lower' is ignored.
1514 This determines what the default comparison operator is. By default
1515 it is C<=>, meaning that a hash like this:
1517 %where = (name => 'nwiger', email => 'nate@wiger.org');
1519 Will generate SQL like this:
1521 WHERE name = 'nwiger' AND email = 'nate@wiger.org'
1523 However, you may want loose comparisons by default, so if you set
1524 C<cmp> to C<like> you would get SQL such as:
1526 WHERE name like 'nwiger' AND email like 'nate@wiger.org'
1528 You can also override the comparsion on an individual basis - see
1529 the huge section on L</"WHERE CLAUSES"> at the bottom.
1531 =item sqltrue, sqlfalse
1533 Expressions for inserting boolean values within SQL statements.
1534 By default these are C<1=1> and C<1=0>. They are used
1535 by the special operators C<-in> and C<-not_in> for generating
1536 correct SQL even when the argument is an empty array (see below).
1540 This determines the default logical operator for multiple WHERE
1541 statements in arrays or hashes. If absent, the default logic is "or"
1542 for arrays, and "and" for hashes. This means that a WHERE
1546 event_date => {'>=', '2/13/99'},
1547 event_date => {'<=', '4/24/03'},
1550 will generate SQL like this:
1552 WHERE event_date >= '2/13/99' OR event_date <= '4/24/03'
1554 This is probably not what you want given this query, though (look
1555 at the dates). To change the "OR" to an "AND", simply specify:
1557 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(logic => 'and');
1559 Which will change the above C<WHERE> to:
1561 WHERE event_date >= '2/13/99' AND event_date <= '4/24/03'
1563 The logic can also be changed locally by inserting
1564 a modifier in front of an arrayref :
1566 @where = (-and => [event_date => {'>=', '2/13/99'},
1567 event_date => {'<=', '4/24/03'} ]);
1569 See the L</"WHERE CLAUSES"> section for explanations.
1573 This will automatically convert comparisons using the specified SQL
1574 function for both column and value. This is mostly used with an argument
1575 of C<upper> or C<lower>, so that the SQL will have the effect of
1576 case-insensitive "searches". For example, this:
1578 $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(convert => 'upper');
1579 %where = (keywords => 'MaKe iT CAse inSeNSItive');
1581 Will turn out the following SQL:
1583 WHERE upper(keywords) like upper('MaKe iT CAse inSeNSItive')
1585 The conversion can be C<upper()>, C<lower()>, or any other SQL function
1586 that can be applied symmetrically to fields (actually B<SQL::Abstract> does
1587 not validate this option; it will just pass through what you specify verbatim).
1591 This is a kludge because many databases suck. For example, you can't
1592 just bind values using DBI's C<execute()> for Oracle C<CLOB> or C<BLOB> fields.
1593 Instead, you have to use C<bind_param()>:
1595 $sth->bind_param(1, 'reg data');
1596 $sth->bind_param(2, $lots, {ora_type => ORA_CLOB});
1598 The problem is, B<SQL::Abstract> will normally just return a C<@bind> array,
1599 which loses track of which field each slot refers to. Fear not.
1601 If you specify C<bindtype> in new, you can determine how C<@bind> is returned.
1602 Currently, you can specify either C<normal> (default) or C<columns>. If you
1603 specify C<columns>, you will get an array that looks like this:
1605 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(bindtype => 'columns');
1606 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert(...);
1609 [ 'column1', 'value1' ],
1610 [ 'column2', 'value2' ],
1611 [ 'column3', 'value3' ],
1614 You can then iterate through this manually, using DBI's C<bind_param()>.
1616 $sth->prepare($stmt);
1619 my($col, $data) = @$_;
1620 if ($col eq 'details' || $col eq 'comments') {
1621 $sth->bind_param($i, $data, {ora_type => ORA_CLOB});
1622 } elsif ($col eq 'image') {
1623 $sth->bind_param($i, $data, {ora_type => ORA_BLOB});
1625 $sth->bind_param($i, $data);
1629 $sth->execute; # execute without @bind now
1631 Now, why would you still use B<SQL::Abstract> if you have to do this crap?
1632 Basically, the advantage is still that you don't have to care which fields
1633 are or are not included. You could wrap that above C<for> loop in a simple
1634 sub called C<bind_fields()> or something and reuse it repeatedly. You still
1635 get a layer of abstraction over manual SQL specification.
1637 Note that if you set L</bindtype> to C<columns>, the C<\[$sql, @bind]>
1638 construct (see L</Literal SQL with placeholders and bind values (subqueries)>)
1639 will expect the bind values in this format.
1643 This is the character that a table or column name will be quoted
1644 with. By default this is an empty string, but you could set it to
1645 the character C<`>, to generate SQL like this:
1647 SELECT `a_field` FROM `a_table` WHERE `some_field` LIKE '%someval%'
1649 Alternatively, you can supply an array ref of two items, the first being the left
1650 hand quote character, and the second the right hand quote character. For
1651 example, you could supply C<['[',']']> for SQL Server 2000 compliant quotes
1652 that generates SQL like this:
1654 SELECT [a_field] FROM [a_table] WHERE [some_field] LIKE '%someval%'
1656 Quoting is useful if you have tables or columns names that are reserved
1657 words in your database's SQL dialect.
1661 This is the character that separates a table and column name. It is
1662 necessary to specify this when the C<quote_char> option is selected,
1663 so that tables and column names can be individually quoted like this:
1665 SELECT `table`.`one_field` FROM `table` WHERE `table`.`other_field` = 1
1667 =item array_datatypes
1669 When this option is true, arrayrefs in INSERT or UPDATE are
1670 interpreted as array datatypes and are passed directly
1672 When this option is false, arrayrefs are interpreted
1673 as literal SQL, just like refs to arrayrefs
1674 (but this behavior is for backwards compatibility; when writing
1675 new queries, use the "reference to arrayref" syntax
1681 Takes a reference to a list of "special operators"
1682 to extend the syntax understood by L<SQL::Abstract>.
1683 See section L</"SPECIAL OPERATORS"> for details.
1687 Takes a reference to a list of "unary operators"
1688 to extend the syntax understood by L<SQL::Abstract>.
1689 See section L</"UNARY OPERATORS"> for details.
1695 =head2 insert($table, \@values || \%fieldvals, \%options)
1697 This is the simplest function. You simply give it a table name
1698 and either an arrayref of values or hashref of field/value pairs.
1699 It returns an SQL INSERT statement and a list of bind values.
1700 See the sections on L</"Inserting and Updating Arrays"> and
1701 L</"Inserting and Updating SQL"> for information on how to insert
1702 with those data types.
1704 The optional C<\%options> hash reference may contain additional
1705 options to generate the insert SQL. Currently supported options
1712 Takes either a scalar of raw SQL fields, or an array reference of
1713 field names, and adds on an SQL C<RETURNING> statement at the end.
1714 This allows you to return data generated by the insert statement
1715 (such as row IDs) without performing another C<SELECT> statement.
1716 Note, however, this is not part of the SQL standard and may not
1717 be supported by all database engines.
1721 =head2 update($table, \%fieldvals, \%where)
1723 This takes a table, hashref of field/value pairs, and an optional
1724 hashref L<WHERE clause|/WHERE CLAUSES>. It returns an SQL UPDATE function and a list
1726 See the sections on L</"Inserting and Updating Arrays"> and
1727 L</"Inserting and Updating SQL"> for information on how to insert
1728 with those data types.
1730 =head2 select($source, $fields, $where, $order)
1732 This returns a SQL SELECT statement and associated list of bind values, as
1733 specified by the arguments :
1739 Specification of the 'FROM' part of the statement.
1740 The argument can be either a plain scalar (interpreted as a table
1741 name, will be quoted), or an arrayref (interpreted as a list
1742 of table names, joined by commas, quoted), or a scalarref
1743 (literal table name, not quoted), or a ref to an arrayref
1744 (list of literal table names, joined by commas, not quoted).
1748 Specification of the list of fields to retrieve from
1750 The argument can be either an arrayref (interpreted as a list
1751 of field names, will be joined by commas and quoted), or a
1752 plain scalar (literal SQL, not quoted).
1753 Please observe that this API is not as flexible as for
1754 the first argument C<$table>, for backwards compatibility reasons.
1758 Optional argument to specify the WHERE part of the query.
1759 The argument is most often a hashref, but can also be
1760 an arrayref or plain scalar --
1761 see section L<WHERE clause|/"WHERE CLAUSES"> for details.
1765 Optional argument to specify the ORDER BY part of the query.
1766 The argument can be a scalar, a hashref or an arrayref
1767 -- see section L<ORDER BY clause|/"ORDER BY CLAUSES">
1773 =head2 delete($table, \%where)
1775 This takes a table name and optional hashref L<WHERE clause|/WHERE CLAUSES>.
1776 It returns an SQL DELETE statement and list of bind values.
1778 =head2 where(\%where, \@order)
1780 This is used to generate just the WHERE clause. For example,
1781 if you have an arbitrary data structure and know what the
1782 rest of your SQL is going to look like, but want an easy way
1783 to produce a WHERE clause, use this. It returns an SQL WHERE
1784 clause and list of bind values.
1787 =head2 values(\%data)
1789 This just returns the values from the hash C<%data>, in the same
1790 order that would be returned from any of the other above queries.
1791 Using this allows you to markedly speed up your queries if you
1792 are affecting lots of rows. See below under the L</"PERFORMANCE"> section.
1794 =head2 generate($any, 'number', $of, \@data, $struct, \%types)
1796 Warning: This is an experimental method and subject to change.
1798 This returns arbitrarily generated SQL. It's a really basic shortcut.
1799 It will return two different things, depending on return context:
1801 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->generate('create table', \$table, \@fields);
1802 my $stmt_and_val = $sql->generate('create table', \$table, \@fields);
1804 These would return the following:
1806 # First calling form
1807 $stmt = "CREATE TABLE test (?, ?)";
1808 @bind = (field1, field2);
1810 # Second calling form
1811 $stmt_and_val = "CREATE TABLE test (field1, field2)";
1813 Depending on what you're trying to do, it's up to you to choose the correct
1814 format. In this example, the second form is what you would want.
1818 $sql->generate('alter session', { nls_date_format => 'MM/YY' });
1822 ALTER SESSION SET nls_date_format = 'MM/YY'
1824 You get the idea. Strings get their case twiddled, but everything
1825 else remains verbatim.
1830 =head1 WHERE CLAUSES
1834 This module uses a variation on the idea from L<DBIx::Abstract>. It
1835 is B<NOT>, repeat I<not> 100% compatible. B<The main logic of this
1836 module is that things in arrays are OR'ed, and things in hashes
1839 The easiest way to explain is to show lots of examples. After
1840 each C<%where> hash shown, it is assumed you used:
1842 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->where(\%where);
1844 However, note that the C<%where> hash can be used directly in any
1845 of the other functions as well, as described above.
1847 =head2 Key-value pairs
1849 So, let's get started. To begin, a simple hash:
1853 status => 'completed'
1856 Is converted to SQL C<key = val> statements:
1858 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND status = ?";
1859 @bind = ('nwiger', 'completed');
1861 One common thing I end up doing is having a list of values that
1862 a field can be in. To do this, simply specify a list inside of
1867 status => ['assigned', 'in-progress', 'pending'];
1870 This simple code will create the following:
1872 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND ( status = ? OR status = ? OR status = ? )";
1873 @bind = ('nwiger', 'assigned', 'in-progress', 'pending');
1875 A field associated to an empty arrayref will be considered a
1876 logical false and will generate 0=1.
1878 =head2 Specific comparison operators
1880 If you want to specify a different type of operator for your comparison,
1881 you can use a hashref for a given column:
1885 status => { '!=', 'completed' }
1888 Which would generate:
1890 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND status != ?";
1891 @bind = ('nwiger', 'completed');
1893 To test against multiple values, just enclose the values in an arrayref:
1895 status => { '=', ['assigned', 'in-progress', 'pending'] };
1897 Which would give you:
1899 "WHERE status = ? OR status = ? OR status = ?"
1902 The hashref can also contain multiple pairs, in which case it is expanded
1903 into an C<AND> of its elements:
1907 status => { '!=', 'completed', -not_like => 'pending%' }
1910 # Or more dynamically, like from a form
1911 $where{user} = 'nwiger';
1912 $where{status}{'!='} = 'completed';
1913 $where{status}{'-not_like'} = 'pending%';
1915 # Both generate this
1916 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND status != ? AND status NOT LIKE ?";
1917 @bind = ('nwiger', 'completed', 'pending%');
1920 To get an OR instead, you can combine it with the arrayref idea:
1924 priority => [ {'=', 2}, {'!=', 1} ]
1927 Which would generate:
1929 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND priority = ? OR priority != ?";
1930 @bind = ('nwiger', '2', '1');
1932 If you want to include literal SQL (with or without bind values), just use a
1933 scalar reference or array reference as the value:
1936 date_entered => { '>' => \["to_date(?, 'MM/DD/YYYY')", "11/26/2008"] },
1937 date_expires => { '<' => \"now()" }
1940 Which would generate:
1942 $stmt = "WHERE date_entered > "to_date(?, 'MM/DD/YYYY') AND date_expires < now()";
1943 @bind = ('11/26/2008');
1946 =head2 Logic and nesting operators
1948 In the example above,
1949 there is a subtle trap if you want to say something like
1950 this (notice the C<AND>):
1952 WHERE priority != ? AND priority != ?
1954 Because, in Perl you I<can't> do this:
1956 priority => { '!=', 2, '!=', 1 }
1958 As the second C<!=> key will obliterate the first. The solution
1959 is to use the special C<-modifier> form inside an arrayref:
1961 priority => [ -and => {'!=', 2},
1965 Normally, these would be joined by C<OR>, but the modifier tells it
1966 to use C<AND> instead. (Hint: You can use this in conjunction with the
1967 C<logic> option to C<new()> in order to change the way your queries
1968 work by default.) B<Important:> Note that the C<-modifier> goes
1969 B<INSIDE> the arrayref, as an extra first element. This will
1970 B<NOT> do what you think it might:
1972 priority => -and => [{'!=', 2}, {'!=', 1}] # WRONG!
1974 Here is a quick list of equivalencies, since there is some overlap:
1977 status => {'!=', 'completed', 'not like', 'pending%' }
1978 status => [ -and => {'!=', 'completed'}, {'not like', 'pending%'}]
1981 status => {'=', ['assigned', 'in-progress']}
1982 status => [ -or => {'=', 'assigned'}, {'=', 'in-progress'}]
1983 status => [ {'=', 'assigned'}, {'=', 'in-progress'} ]
1987 =head2 Special operators : IN, BETWEEN, etc.
1989 You can also use the hashref format to compare a list of fields using the
1990 C<IN> comparison operator, by specifying the list as an arrayref:
1993 status => 'completed',
1994 reportid => { -in => [567, 2335, 2] }
1997 Which would generate:
1999 $stmt = "WHERE status = ? AND reportid IN (?,?,?)";
2000 @bind = ('completed', '567', '2335', '2');
2002 The reverse operator C<-not_in> generates SQL C<NOT IN> and is used in
2005 If the argument to C<-in> is an empty array, 'sqlfalse' is generated
2006 (by default : C<1=0>). Similarly, C<< -not_in => [] >> generates
2007 'sqltrue' (by default : C<1=1>).
2009 In addition to the array you can supply a chunk of literal sql or
2010 literal sql with bind:
2013 customer => { -in => \[
2014 'SELECT cust_id FROM cust WHERE balance > ?',
2017 status => { -in => \'SELECT status_codes FROM states' },
2023 customer IN ( SELECT cust_id FROM cust WHERE balance > ? )
2024 AND status IN ( SELECT status_codes FROM states )
2030 Another pair of operators is C<-between> and C<-not_between>,
2031 used with an arrayref of two values:
2035 completion_date => {
2036 -not_between => ['2002-10-01', '2003-02-06']
2042 WHERE user = ? AND completion_date NOT BETWEEN ( ? AND ? )
2044 Just like with C<-in> all plausible combinations of literal SQL
2048 start0 => { -between => [ 1, 2 ] },
2049 start1 => { -between => \["? AND ?", 1, 2] },
2050 start2 => { -between => \"lower(x) AND upper(y)" },
2051 start3 => { -between => [
2053 \["upper(?)", 'stuff' ],
2060 ( start0 BETWEEN ? AND ? )
2061 AND ( start1 BETWEEN ? AND ? )
2062 AND ( start2 BETWEEN lower(x) AND upper(y) )
2063 AND ( start3 BETWEEN lower(x) AND upper(?) )
2065 @bind = (1, 2, 1, 2, 'stuff');
2068 These are the two builtin "special operators"; but the
2069 list can be expanded : see section L</"SPECIAL OPERATORS"> below.
2071 =head2 Unary operators: bool
2073 If you wish to test against boolean columns or functions within your
2074 database you can use the C<-bool> and C<-not_bool> operators. For
2075 example to test the column C<is_user> being true and the column
2076 <is_enabled> being false you would use:-
2080 -not_bool => 'is_enabled',
2085 WHERE is_user AND NOT is_enabled
2087 If a more complex combination is required, testing more conditions,
2088 then you should use the and/or operators:-
2095 -not_bool => 'four',
2101 WHERE one AND two AND three AND NOT four
2104 =head2 Nested conditions, -and/-or prefixes
2106 So far, we've seen how multiple conditions are joined with a top-level
2107 C<AND>. We can change this by putting the different conditions we want in
2108 hashes and then putting those hashes in an array. For example:
2113 status => { -like => ['pending%', 'dispatched'] },
2117 status => 'unassigned',
2121 This data structure would create the following:
2123 $stmt = "WHERE ( user = ? AND ( status LIKE ? OR status LIKE ? ) )
2124 OR ( user = ? AND status = ? ) )";
2125 @bind = ('nwiger', 'pending', 'dispatched', 'robot', 'unassigned');
2128 There is also a special C<-nest>
2129 operator which adds an additional set of parens, to create a subquery.
2130 For example, to get something like this:
2132 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND ( workhrs > ? OR geo = ? )";
2133 @bind = ('nwiger', '20', 'ASIA');
2139 -nest => [ workhrs => {'>', 20}, geo => 'ASIA' ],
2143 Finally, clauses in hashrefs or arrayrefs can be
2144 prefixed with an C<-and> or C<-or> to change the logic
2151 -and => [workhrs => {'>', 20}, geo => 'ASIA' ],
2152 -and => [workhrs => {'<', 50}, geo => 'EURO' ]
2159 WHERE ( user = ? AND
2160 ( ( workhrs > ? AND geo = ? )
2161 OR ( workhrs < ? AND geo = ? ) ) )
2164 =head2 Algebraic inconsistency, for historical reasons
2166 C<Important note>: when connecting several conditions, the C<-and->|C<-or>
2167 operator goes C<outside> of the nested structure; whereas when connecting
2168 several constraints on one column, the C<-and> operator goes
2169 C<inside> the arrayref. Here is an example combining both features :
2172 -and => [a => 1, b => 2],
2173 -or => [c => 3, d => 4],
2174 e => [-and => {-like => 'foo%'}, {-like => '%bar'} ]
2179 WHERE ( ( ( a = ? AND b = ? )
2180 OR ( c = ? OR d = ? )
2181 OR ( e LIKE ? AND e LIKE ? ) ) )
2183 This difference in syntax is unfortunate but must be preserved for
2184 historical reasons. So be careful : the two examples below would
2185 seem algebraically equivalent, but they are not
2187 {col => [-and => {-like => 'foo%'}, {-like => '%bar'}]}
2188 # yields : WHERE ( ( col LIKE ? AND col LIKE ? ) )
2190 [-and => {col => {-like => 'foo%'}, {col => {-like => '%bar'}}]]
2191 # yields : WHERE ( ( col LIKE ? OR col LIKE ? ) )
2196 Finally, sometimes only literal SQL will do. If you want to include
2197 literal SQL verbatim, you can specify it as a scalar reference, namely:
2199 my $inn = 'is Not Null';
2201 priority => { '<', 2 },
2207 $stmt = "WHERE priority < ? AND requestor is Not Null";
2210 Note that in this example, you only get one bind parameter back, since
2211 the verbatim SQL is passed as part of the statement.
2213 Of course, just to prove a point, the above can also be accomplished
2217 priority => { '<', 2 },
2218 requestor => { '!=', undef },
2224 Conditions on boolean columns can be expressed in the same way, passing
2225 a reference to an empty string, however using liternal SQL in this way
2226 is deprecated - the preferred method is to use the boolean operators -
2227 see L</"Unary operators: bool"> :
2230 priority => { '<', 2 },
2236 $stmt = "WHERE priority < ? AND is_ready";
2240 =head2 Literal SQL with placeholders and bind values (subqueries)
2242 If the literal SQL to be inserted has placeholders and bind values,
2243 use a reference to an arrayref (yes this is a double reference --
2244 not so common, but perfectly legal Perl). For example, to find a date
2245 in Postgres you can use something like this:
2248 date_column => \[q/= date '2008-09-30' - ?::integer/, 10/]
2253 $stmt = "WHERE ( date_column = date '2008-09-30' - ?::integer )"
2256 Note that you must pass the bind values in the same format as they are returned
2257 by L</where>. That means that if you set L</bindtype> to C<columns>, you must
2258 provide the bind values in the C<< [ column_meta => value ] >> format, where
2259 C<column_meta> is an opaque scalar value; most commonly the column name, but
2260 you can use any scalar value (including references and blessed references),
2261 L<SQL::Abstract> will simply pass it through intact. So if C<bindtype> is set
2262 to C<columns> the above example will look like:
2265 date_column => \[q/= date '2008-09-30' - ?::integer/, [ dummy => 10 ]/]
2268 Literal SQL is especially useful for nesting parenthesized clauses in the
2269 main SQL query. Here is a first example :
2271 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind) = ("SELECT c1 FROM t1 WHERE c2 < ? AND c3 LIKE ?",
2275 bar => \["IN ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
2280 $stmt = "WHERE (foo = ? AND bar IN (SELECT c1 FROM t1
2281 WHERE c2 < ? AND c3 LIKE ?))";
2282 @bind = (1234, 100, "foo%");
2284 Other subquery operators, like for example C<"E<gt> ALL"> or C<"NOT IN">,
2285 are expressed in the same way. Of course the C<$sub_stmt> and
2286 its associated bind values can be generated through a former call
2289 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind)
2290 = $sql->select("t1", "c1", {c2 => {"<" => 100},
2291 c3 => {-like => "foo%"}});
2294 bar => \["> ALL ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
2297 In the examples above, the subquery was used as an operator on a column;
2298 but the same principle also applies for a clause within the main C<%where>
2299 hash, like an EXISTS subquery :
2301 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind)
2302 = $sql->select("t1", "*", {c1 => 1, c2 => \"> t0.c0"});
2305 -nest => \["EXISTS ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
2310 $stmt = "WHERE (foo = ? AND EXISTS (SELECT * FROM t1
2311 WHERE c1 = ? AND c2 > t0.c0))";
2315 Observe that the condition on C<c2> in the subquery refers to
2316 column C<t0.c0> of the main query : this is I<not> a bind
2317 value, so we have to express it through a scalar ref.
2318 Writing C<< c2 => {">" => "t0.c0"} >> would have generated
2319 C<< c2 > ? >> with bind value C<"t0.c0"> ... not exactly
2320 what we wanted here.
2322 Another use of the subquery technique is when some SQL clauses need
2323 parentheses, as it often occurs with some proprietary SQL extensions
2324 like for example fulltext expressions, geospatial expressions,
2325 NATIVE clauses, etc. Here is an example of a fulltext query in MySQL :
2328 -nest => \["MATCH (col1, col2) AGAINST (?)" => qw/apples/]
2331 Finally, here is an example where a subquery is used
2332 for expressing unary negation:
2334 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind)
2335 = $sql->where({age => [{"<" => 10}, {">" => 20}]});
2336 $sub_stmt =~ s/^ where //i; # don't want "WHERE" in the subclause
2338 lname => {like => '%son%'},
2339 -nest => \["NOT ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
2344 $stmt = "lname LIKE ? AND NOT ( age < ? OR age > ? )"
2345 @bind = ('%son%', 10, 20)
2351 These pages could go on for a while, since the nesting of the data
2352 structures this module can handle are pretty much unlimited (the
2353 module implements the C<WHERE> expansion as a recursive function
2354 internally). Your best bet is to "play around" with the module a
2355 little to see how the data structures behave, and choose the best
2356 format for your data based on that.
2358 And of course, all the values above will probably be replaced with
2359 variables gotten from forms or the command line. After all, if you
2360 knew everything ahead of time, you wouldn't have to worry about
2361 dynamically-generating SQL and could just hardwire it into your
2367 =head1 ORDER BY CLAUSES
2369 Some functions take an order by clause. This can either be a scalar (just a
2370 column name,) a hash of C<< { -desc => 'col' } >> or C<< { -asc => 'col' } >>,
2371 or an array of either of the two previous forms. Examples:
2373 Given | Will Generate
2374 ----------------------------------------------------------
2376 \'colA DESC' | ORDER BY colA DESC
2378 'colA' | ORDER BY colA
2380 [qw/colA colB/] | ORDER BY colA, colB
2382 {-asc => 'colA'} | ORDER BY colA ASC
2384 {-desc => 'colB'} | ORDER BY colB DESC
2386 ['colA', {-asc => 'colB'}] | ORDER BY colA, colB ASC
2388 { -asc => [qw/colA colB] } | ORDER BY colA ASC, colB ASC
2391 { -asc => 'colA' }, | ORDER BY colA ASC, colB DESC,
2392 { -desc => [qw/colB/], | colC ASC, colD ASC
2393 { -asc => [qw/colC colD/],|
2395 ===========================================================
2399 =head1 SPECIAL OPERATORS
2401 my $sqlmaker = SQL::Abstract->new(special_ops => [
2405 my ($self, $field, $op, $arg) = @_;
2411 handler => 'method_name',
2415 A "special operator" is a SQL syntactic clause that can be
2416 applied to a field, instead of a usual binary operator.
2419 WHERE field IN (?, ?, ?)
2420 WHERE field BETWEEN ? AND ?
2421 WHERE MATCH(field) AGAINST (?, ?)
2423 Special operators IN and BETWEEN are fairly standard and therefore
2424 are builtin within C<SQL::Abstract> (as the overridable methods
2425 C<_where_field_IN> and C<_where_field_BETWEEN>). For other operators,
2426 like the MATCH .. AGAINST example above which is specific to MySQL,
2427 you can write your own operator handlers - supply a C<special_ops>
2428 argument to the C<new> method. That argument takes an arrayref of
2429 operator definitions; each operator definition is a hashref with two
2436 the regular expression to match the operator
2440 Either a coderef or a plain scalar method name. In both cases
2441 the expected return is C<< ($sql, @bind) >>.
2443 When supplied with a method name, it is simply called on the
2444 L<SQL::Abstract/> object as:
2446 $self->$method_name ($field, $op, $arg)
2450 $op is the part that matched the handler regex
2451 $field is the LHS of the operator
2454 When supplied with a coderef, it is called as:
2456 $coderef->($self, $field, $op, $arg)
2461 For example, here is an implementation
2462 of the MATCH .. AGAINST syntax for MySQL
2464 my $sqlmaker = SQL::Abstract->new(special_ops => [
2466 # special op for MySql MATCH (field) AGAINST(word1, word2, ...)
2467 {regex => qr/^match$/i,
2469 my ($self, $field, $op, $arg) = @_;
2470 $arg = [$arg] if not ref $arg;
2471 my $label = $self->_quote($field);
2472 my ($placeholder) = $self->_convert('?');
2473 my $placeholders = join ", ", (($placeholder) x @$arg);
2474 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('match') . " ($label) "
2475 . $self->_sqlcase('against') . " ($placeholders) ";
2476 my @bind = $self->_bindtype($field, @$arg);
2477 return ($sql, @bind);
2484 =head1 UNARY OPERATORS
2486 my $sqlmaker = SQL::Abstract->new(unary_ops => [
2490 my ($self, $op, $arg) = @_;
2496 handler => 'method_name',
2500 A "unary operator" is a SQL syntactic clause that can be
2501 applied to a field - the operator goes before the field
2503 You can write your own operator handlers - supply a C<unary_ops>
2504 argument to the C<new> method. That argument takes an arrayref of
2505 operator definitions; each operator definition is a hashref with two
2512 the regular expression to match the operator
2516 Either a coderef or a plain scalar method name. In both cases
2517 the expected return is C<< $sql >>.
2519 When supplied with a method name, it is simply called on the
2520 L<SQL::Abstract/> object as:
2522 $self->$method_name ($op, $arg)
2526 $op is the part that matched the handler regex
2527 $arg is the RHS or argument of the operator
2529 When supplied with a coderef, it is called as:
2531 $coderef->($self, $op, $arg)
2539 Thanks to some benchmarking by Mark Stosberg, it turns out that
2540 this module is many orders of magnitude faster than using C<DBIx::Abstract>.
2541 I must admit this wasn't an intentional design issue, but it's a
2542 byproduct of the fact that you get to control your C<DBI> handles
2545 To maximize performance, use a code snippet like the following:
2547 # prepare a statement handle using the first row
2548 # and then reuse it for the rest of the rows
2550 for my $href (@array_of_hashrefs) {
2551 $stmt ||= $sql->insert('table', $href);
2552 $sth ||= $dbh->prepare($stmt);
2553 $sth->execute($sql->values($href));
2556 The reason this works is because the keys in your C<$href> are sorted
2557 internally by B<SQL::Abstract>. Thus, as long as your data retains
2558 the same structure, you only have to generate the SQL the first time
2559 around. On subsequent queries, simply use the C<values> function provided
2560 by this module to return your values in the correct order.
2565 If you use my C<CGI::FormBuilder> module at all, you'll hopefully
2566 really like this part (I do, at least). Building up a complex query
2567 can be as simple as the following:
2571 use CGI::FormBuilder;
2574 my $form = CGI::FormBuilder->new(...);
2575 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new;
2577 if ($form->submitted) {
2578 my $field = $form->field;
2579 my $id = delete $field->{id};
2580 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->update('table', $field, {id => $id});
2583 Of course, you would still have to connect using C<DBI> to run the
2584 query, but the point is that if you make your form look like your
2585 table, the actual query script can be extremely simplistic.
2587 If you're B<REALLY> lazy (I am), check out C<HTML::QuickTable> for
2588 a fast interface to returning and formatting data. I frequently
2589 use these three modules together to write complex database query
2590 apps in under 50 lines.
2595 Version 1.50 was a major internal refactoring of C<SQL::Abstract>.
2596 Great care has been taken to preserve the I<published> behavior
2597 documented in previous versions in the 1.* family; however,
2598 some features that were previously undocumented, or behaved
2599 differently from the documentation, had to be changed in order
2600 to clarify the semantics. Hence, client code that was relying
2601 on some dark areas of C<SQL::Abstract> v1.*
2602 B<might behave differently> in v1.50.
2604 The main changes are :
2610 support for literal SQL through the C<< \ [$sql, bind] >> syntax.
2614 support for the { operator => \"..." } construct (to embed literal SQL)
2618 support for the { operator => \["...", @bind] } construct (to embed literal SQL with bind values)
2622 optional support for L<array datatypes|/"Inserting and Updating Arrays">
2626 defensive programming : check arguments
2630 fixed bug with global logic, which was previously implemented
2631 through global variables yielding side-effects. Prior versions would
2632 interpret C<< [ {cond1, cond2}, [cond3, cond4] ] >>
2633 as C<< "(cond1 AND cond2) OR (cond3 AND cond4)" >>.
2634 Now this is interpreted
2635 as C<< "(cond1 AND cond2) OR (cond3 OR cond4)" >>.
2640 fixed semantics of _bindtype on array args
2644 dropped the C<_anoncopy> of the %where tree. No longer necessary,
2645 we just avoid shifting arrays within that tree.
2649 dropped the C<_modlogic> function
2655 =head1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
2657 There are a number of individuals that have really helped out with
2658 this module. Unfortunately, most of them submitted bugs via CPAN
2659 so I have no idea who they are! But the people I do know are:
2661 Ash Berlin (order_by hash term support)
2662 Matt Trout (DBIx::Class support)
2663 Mark Stosberg (benchmarking)
2664 Chas Owens (initial "IN" operator support)
2665 Philip Collins (per-field SQL functions)
2666 Eric Kolve (hashref "AND" support)
2667 Mike Fragassi (enhancements to "BETWEEN" and "LIKE")
2668 Dan Kubb (support for "quote_char" and "name_sep")
2669 Guillermo Roditi (patch to cleanup "IN" and "BETWEEN", fix and tests for _order_by)
2670 Laurent Dami (internal refactoring, multiple -nest, extensible list of special operators, literal SQL)
2671 Norbert Buchmuller (support for literal SQL in hashpair, misc. fixes & tests)
2672 Peter Rabbitson (rewrite of SQLA::Test, misc. fixes & tests)
2673 Oliver Charles (support for "RETURNING" after "INSERT")
2679 L<DBIx::Class>, L<DBIx::Abstract>, L<CGI::FormBuilder>, L<HTML::QuickTable>.
2683 Copyright (c) 2001-2007 Nathan Wiger <nwiger@cpan.org>. All Rights Reserved.
2685 This module is actively maintained by Matt Trout <mst@shadowcatsystems.co.uk>
2687 For support, your best bet is to try the C<DBIx::Class> users mailing list.
2688 While not an official support venue, C<DBIx::Class> makes heavy use of
2689 C<SQL::Abstract>, and as such list members there are very familiar with
2690 how to create queries.
2694 This module is free software; you may copy this under the same
2695 terms as perl itself (either the GNU General Public License or
2696 the Artistic License)