1 package SQL::Abstract; # see doc at end of file
3 # LDNOTE : this code is heavy refactoring from original SQLA.
4 # Several design decisions will need discussion during
5 # the test / diffusion / acceptance phase; those are marked with flag
6 # 'LDNOTE' (note by laurent.dami AT free.fr)
14 #======================================================================
16 #======================================================================
18 our $VERSION = '1.61';
20 # This would confuse some packagers
21 #$VERSION = eval $VERSION; # numify for warning-free dev releases
25 # special operators (-in, -between). May be extended/overridden by user.
26 # See section WHERE: BUILTIN SPECIAL OPERATORS below for implementation
27 my @BUILTIN_SPECIAL_OPS = (
28 {regex => qr/^(not )?between$/i, handler => '_where_field_BETWEEN'},
29 {regex => qr/^(not )?in$/i, handler => '_where_field_IN'},
32 # unaryish operators - key maps to handler
33 my @BUILTIN_UNARY_OPS = (
34 # the digits are backcompat stuff
35 { regex => qr/^and (?: \s? \d+ )? $/xi, handler => '_where_op_ANDOR' },
36 { regex => qr/^or (?: \s? \d+ )? $/xi, handler => '_where_op_ANDOR' },
37 { regex => qr/^nest (?: \s? \d+ )? $/xi, handler => '_where_op_NEST' },
38 { regex => qr/^ (?: not \s )? bool $/xi, handler => '_where_op_BOOL' },
41 #======================================================================
42 # DEBUGGING AND ERROR REPORTING
43 #======================================================================
46 return unless $_[0]->{debug}; shift; # a little faster
47 my $func = (caller(1))[3];
48 warn "[$func] ", @_, "\n";
52 my($func) = (caller(1))[3];
53 carp "[$func] Warning: ", @_;
57 my($func) = (caller(1))[3];
58 croak "[$func] Fatal: ", @_;
62 #======================================================================
64 #======================================================================
68 my $class = ref($self) || $self;
69 my %opt = (ref $_[0] eq 'HASH') ? %{$_[0]} : @_;
71 # choose our case by keeping an option around
72 delete $opt{case} if $opt{case} && $opt{case} ne 'lower';
74 # default logic for interpreting arrayrefs
75 $opt{logic} = $opt{logic} ? uc $opt{logic} : 'OR';
77 # how to return bind vars
78 # LDNOTE: changed nwiger code : why this 'delete' ??
79 # $opt{bindtype} ||= delete($opt{bind_type}) || 'normal';
80 $opt{bindtype} ||= 'normal';
82 # default comparison is "=", but can be overridden
85 # generic SQL comparison operators
86 my $anchored_cmp_ops = join ('|', map { '^' . $_ . '$' } (
87 '(?:is \s+)? (?:not \s+)? like',
89 (map { quotemeta($_) } (qw/ < > != <> = <= >= /) ),
91 $opt{cmp_ops} = qr/$anchored_cmp_ops/ix;
93 # try to recognize which are the 'equality' and 'unequality' ops
94 # (temporary quickfix, should go through a more seasoned API)
95 $opt{equality_op} = qr/^(\Q$opt{cmp}\E|is|(is\s+)?like)$/i;
96 $opt{inequality_op} = qr/^(!=|<>|(is\s+)?not(\s+like)?)$/i;
99 $opt{sqltrue} ||= '1=1';
100 $opt{sqlfalse} ||= '0=1';
103 $opt{special_ops} ||= [];
104 push @{$opt{special_ops}}, @BUILTIN_SPECIAL_OPS;
107 $opt{unary_ops} ||= [];
108 push @{$opt{unary_ops}}, @BUILTIN_UNARY_OPS;
110 return bless \%opt, $class;
115 #======================================================================
117 #======================================================================
121 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
122 my $data = shift || return;
125 my $method = $self->_METHOD_FOR_refkind("_insert", $data);
126 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->$method($data);
127 $sql = join " ", $self->_sqlcase('insert into'), $table, $sql;
129 if (my $ret = $options->{returning}) {
130 $sql .= $self->_insert_returning ($ret);
133 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
136 sub _insert_returning {
137 my ($self, $fields) = @_;
139 my $f = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($fields, {
140 ARRAYREF => sub {join ', ', map { $self->_quote($_) } @$fields;},
141 SCALAR => sub {$self->_quote($fields)},
142 SCALARREF => sub {$$fields},
144 return join (' ', $self->_sqlcase(' returning'), $f);
147 sub _insert_HASHREF { # explicit list of fields and then values
148 my ($self, $data) = @_;
150 my @fields = sort keys %$data;
152 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_insert_values($data);
155 $_ = $self->_quote($_) foreach @fields;
156 $sql = "( ".join(", ", @fields).") ".$sql;
158 return ($sql, @bind);
161 sub _insert_ARRAYREF { # just generate values(?,?) part (no list of fields)
162 my ($self, $data) = @_;
164 # no names (arrayref) so can't generate bindtype
165 $self->{bindtype} ne 'columns'
166 or belch "can't do 'columns' bindtype when called with arrayref";
168 # fold the list of values into a hash of column name - value pairs
169 # (where the column names are artificially generated, and their
170 # lexicographical ordering keep the ordering of the original list)
171 my $i = "a"; # incremented values will be in lexicographical order
172 my $data_in_hash = { map { ($i++ => $_) } @$data };
174 return $self->_insert_values($data_in_hash);
177 sub _insert_ARRAYREFREF { # literal SQL with bind
178 my ($self, $data) = @_;
180 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$data};
181 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
183 return ($sql, @bind);
187 sub _insert_SCALARREF { # literal SQL without bind
188 my ($self, $data) = @_;
194 my ($self, $data) = @_;
196 my (@values, @all_bind);
197 foreach my $column (sort keys %$data) {
198 my $v = $data->{$column};
200 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
203 if ($self->{array_datatypes}) { # if array datatype are activated
205 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($column, $v);
207 else { # else literal SQL with bind
208 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
209 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
211 push @all_bind, @bind;
215 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
216 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$v};
217 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
219 push @all_bind, @bind;
222 # THINK : anything useful to do with a HASHREF ?
223 HASHREF => sub { # (nothing, but old SQLA passed it through)
224 #TODO in SQLA >= 2.0 it will die instead
225 belch "HASH ref as bind value in insert is not supported";
227 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($column, $v);
230 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL without bind
234 SCALAR_or_UNDEF => sub {
236 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($column, $v);
243 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('values')." ( ".join(", ", @values)." )";
244 return ($sql, @all_bind);
249 #======================================================================
251 #======================================================================
256 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
257 my $data = shift || return;
260 # first build the 'SET' part of the sql statement
261 my (@set, @all_bind);
262 puke "Unsupported data type specified to \$sql->update"
263 unless ref $data eq 'HASH';
265 for my $k (sort keys %$data) {
268 my $label = $self->_quote($k);
270 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
272 if ($self->{array_datatypes}) { # array datatype
273 push @set, "$label = ?";
274 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
276 else { # literal SQL with bind
277 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
278 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
279 push @set, "$label = $sql";
280 push @all_bind, @bind;
283 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
284 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$v};
285 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
286 push @set, "$label = $sql";
287 push @all_bind, @bind;
289 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL without bind
290 push @set, "$label = $$v";
292 SCALAR_or_UNDEF => sub {
293 push @set, "$label = ?";
294 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
300 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('update') . " $table " . $self->_sqlcase('set ')
304 my($where_sql, @where_bind) = $self->where($where);
306 push @all_bind, @where_bind;
309 return wantarray ? ($sql, @all_bind) : $sql;
315 #======================================================================
317 #======================================================================
322 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
323 my $fields = shift || '*';
327 my($where_sql, @bind) = $self->where($where, $order);
329 my $f = (ref $fields eq 'ARRAY') ? join ', ', map { $self->_quote($_) } @$fields
331 my $sql = join(' ', $self->_sqlcase('select'), $f,
332 $self->_sqlcase('from'), $table)
335 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
338 #======================================================================
340 #======================================================================
345 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
349 my($where_sql, @bind) = $self->where($where);
350 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('delete from') . " $table" . $where_sql;
352 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
356 #======================================================================
358 #======================================================================
362 # Finally, a separate routine just to handle WHERE clauses
364 my ($self, $where, $order) = @_;
367 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_recurse_where($where);
368 $sql = $sql ? $self->_sqlcase(' where ') . "( $sql )" : '';
372 $sql .= $self->_order_by($order);
375 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
380 my ($self, $where, $logic) = @_;
382 # dispatch on appropriate method according to refkind of $where
383 my $method = $self->_METHOD_FOR_refkind("_where", $where);
386 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->$method($where, $logic);
388 # DBIx::Class directly calls _recurse_where in scalar context, so
389 # we must implement it, even if not in the official API
390 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
395 #======================================================================
396 # WHERE: top-level ARRAYREF
397 #======================================================================
400 sub _where_ARRAYREF {
401 my ($self, $where, $logic) = @_;
403 $logic = uc($logic || $self->{logic});
404 $logic eq 'AND' or $logic eq 'OR' or puke "unknown logic: $logic";
406 my @clauses = @$where;
408 my (@sql_clauses, @all_bind);
409 # need to use while() so can shift() for pairs
410 while (my $el = shift @clauses) {
412 # switch according to kind of $el and get corresponding ($sql, @bind)
413 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($el, {
415 # skip empty elements, otherwise get invalid trailing AND stuff
416 ARRAYREF => sub {$self->_recurse_where($el) if @$el},
418 ARRAYREFREF => sub { @{${$el}} if @{${$el}}},
420 HASHREF => sub {$self->_recurse_where($el, 'and') if %$el},
421 # LDNOTE : previous SQLA code for hashrefs was creating a dirty
422 # side-effect: the first hashref within an array would change
423 # the global logic to 'AND'. So [ {cond1, cond2}, [cond3, cond4] ]
424 # was interpreted as "(cond1 AND cond2) OR (cond3 AND cond4)",
425 # whereas it should be "(cond1 AND cond2) OR (cond3 OR cond4)".
427 SCALARREF => sub { ($$el); },
429 SCALAR => sub {# top-level arrayref with scalars, recurse in pairs
430 $self->_recurse_where({$el => shift(@clauses)})},
432 UNDEF => sub {puke "not supported : UNDEF in arrayref" },
436 push @sql_clauses, $sql;
437 push @all_bind, @bind;
441 return $self->_join_sql_clauses($logic, \@sql_clauses, \@all_bind);
444 #======================================================================
445 # WHERE: top-level ARRAYREFREF
446 #======================================================================
448 sub _where_ARRAYREFREF {
449 my ($self, $where) = @_;
450 my ($sql, @bind) = @{${$where}};
452 return ($sql, @bind);
455 #======================================================================
456 # WHERE: top-level HASHREF
457 #======================================================================
460 my ($self, $where) = @_;
461 my (@sql_clauses, @all_bind);
463 for my $k (sort keys %$where) {
464 my $v = $where->{$k};
466 # ($k => $v) is either a special unary op or a regular hashpair
467 my ($sql, @bind) = do {
469 # put the operator in canonical form
471 $op =~ s/^-//; # remove initial dash
472 $op =~ s/[_\t ]+/ /g; # underscores and whitespace become single spaces
473 $op =~ s/^\s+|\s+$//g;# remove leading/trailing space
475 $self->_debug("Unary OP(-$op) within hashref, recursing...");
477 my $op_entry = List::Util::first {$op =~ $_->{regex}} @{$self->{unary_ops}};
478 if (my $handler = $op_entry->{handler}) {
479 if (not ref $handler) {
480 if ($op =~ s/\s?\d+$//) {
481 belch 'Use of [and|or|nest]_N modifiers is deprecated and will be removed in SQLA v2.0. '
482 . "You probably wanted ...-and => [ -$op => COND1, -$op => COND2 ... ]";
484 $self->$handler ($op, $v);
486 elsif (ref $handler eq 'CODE') {
487 $handler->($self, $op, $v);
490 puke "Illegal handler for operator $k - expecting a method name or a coderef";
494 $self->debug("Generic unary OP: $k - recursing as function");
495 $self->_where_func_generic ($op, $v);
499 my $method = $self->_METHOD_FOR_refkind("_where_hashpair", $v);
500 $self->$method($k, $v);
504 push @sql_clauses, $sql;
505 push @all_bind, @bind;
508 return $self->_join_sql_clauses('and', \@sql_clauses, \@all_bind);
511 sub _where_func_generic {
512 my ($self, $op, $rhs) = @_;
514 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind ($rhs, {
516 puke "Illegal use of top-level '$op'"
517 unless $self->{_nested_func_lhs};
520 $self->_convert('?'),
521 $self->_bindtype($self->{_nested_func_lhs}, $rhs)
525 $self->_recurse_where ($rhs)
529 $sql = sprintf ('%s%s',
530 $self->_sqlcase($op),
531 ($op =~ $self->{cmp_ops}) ? " $sql" : "( $sql )",
534 return ($sql, @bind);
537 sub _where_op_ANDOR {
538 my ($self, $op, $v) = @_;
540 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
542 return $self->_where_ARRAYREF($v, $op);
546 return ( $op =~ /^or/i )
547 ? $self->_where_ARRAYREF( [ map { $_ => $v->{$_} } ( sort keys %$v ) ], $op )
548 : $self->_where_HASHREF($v);
552 puke "-$op => \\\$scalar not supported, use -nest => ...";
556 puke "-$op => \\[..] not supported, use -nest => ...";
559 SCALAR => sub { # permissively interpreted as SQL
560 puke "-$op => 'scalar' not supported, use -nest => \\'scalar'";
564 puke "-$op => undef not supported";
570 my ($self, $op, $v) = @_;
572 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
574 SCALAR => sub { # permissively interpreted as SQL
575 belch "literal SQL should be -nest => \\'scalar' "
576 . "instead of -nest => 'scalar' ";
581 puke "-$op => undef not supported";
585 $self->_recurse_where ($v);
593 my ($self, $op, $v) = @_;
595 my ( $prefix, $suffix ) = ( $op =~ /\bnot\b/i )
599 my ($sql, @bind) = do {
600 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
601 SCALAR => sub { # interpreted as SQL column
602 $self->_convert($self->_quote($v));
606 puke "-$op => undef not supported";
610 $self->_recurse_where ($v);
616 join ('', $prefix, $sql, $suffix),
622 sub _where_hashpair_ARRAYREF {
623 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
626 my @v = @$v; # need copy because of shift below
627 $self->_debug("ARRAY($k) means distribute over elements");
629 # put apart first element if it is an operator (-and, -or)
631 (defined $v[0] && $v[0] =~ /^ - (?: AND|OR ) $/ix)
635 my @distributed = map { {$k => $_} } @v;
638 $self->_debug("OP($op) reinjected into the distributed array");
639 unshift @distributed, $op;
642 my $logic = $op ? substr($op, 1) : '';
644 return $self->_recurse_where(\@distributed, $logic);
647 # LDNOTE : not sure of this one. What does "distribute over nothing" mean?
648 $self->_debug("empty ARRAY($k) means 0=1");
649 return ($self->{sqlfalse});
653 sub _where_hashpair_HASHREF {
654 my ($self, $k, $v, $logic) = @_;
657 local $self->{_nested_func_lhs} = $self->{_nested_func_lhs};
658 $self->{_nested_func_lhs} ||= $k;
660 my ($all_sql, @all_bind);
662 for my $orig_op (sort keys %$v) {
663 my $val = $v->{$orig_op};
665 # put the operator in canonical form
667 $op =~ s/^-//; # remove initial dash
668 $op =~ s/[_\t ]+/ /g; # underscores and whitespace become single spaces
669 $op =~ s/^\s+|\s+$//g;# remove leading/trailing space
673 # CASE: col-value logic modifiers
674 if ( $orig_op =~ /^ \- (and|or) $/xi ) {
675 ($sql, @bind) = $self->_where_hashpair_HASHREF($k, $val, $1);
677 # CASE: special operators like -in or -between
678 elsif ( my $special_op = List::Util::first {$op =~ $_->{regex}} @{$self->{special_ops}} ) {
679 my $handler = $special_op->{handler};
681 puke "No handler supplied for special operator $orig_op";
683 elsif (not ref $handler) {
684 ($sql, @bind) = $self->$handler ($k, $op, $val);
686 elsif (ref $handler eq 'CODE') {
687 ($sql, @bind) = $handler->($self, $k, $op, $val);
690 puke "Illegal handler for special operator $orig_op - expecting a method name or a coderef";
694 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($val, {
696 ARRAYREF => sub { # CASE: col => {op => \@vals}
697 ($sql, @bind) = $self->_where_field_op_ARRAYREF($k, $op, $val);
700 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # CASE: col => {op => \[$sql, @bind]} (literal SQL with bind)
701 my ($sub_sql, @sub_bind) = @$$val;
702 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@sub_bind);
703 $sql = join ' ', $self->_convert($self->_quote($k)),
704 $self->_sqlcase($op),
709 UNDEF => sub { # CASE: col => {op => undef} : sql "IS (NOT)? NULL"
710 my $is = ($op =~ $self->{equality_op}) ? 'is' :
711 ($op =~ $self->{inequality_op}) ? 'is not' :
712 puke "unexpected operator '$orig_op' with undef operand";
713 $sql = $self->_quote($k) . $self->_sqlcase(" $is null");
716 FALLBACK => sub { # CASE: col => {op/func => $stuff}
717 ($sql, @bind) = $self->_where_func_generic ($op, $val);
718 $sql = join ' ', $self->_convert($self->_quote($k)), $sql;
723 ($all_sql) = (defined $all_sql and $all_sql) ? $self->_join_sql_clauses($logic, [$all_sql, $sql], []) : $sql;
724 push @all_bind, @bind;
726 return ($all_sql, @all_bind);
731 sub _where_field_op_ARRAYREF {
732 my ($self, $k, $op, $vals) = @_;
734 my @vals = @$vals; #always work on a copy
737 $self->_debug(sprintf '%s means multiple elements: [ %s ]',
739 join (', ', map { defined $_ ? "'$_'" : 'NULL' } @vals ),
742 # see if the first element is an -and/-or op
744 if (defined $vals[0] && $vals[0] =~ /^ - ( AND|OR ) $/ix) {
749 # distribute $op over each remaining member of @vals, append logic if exists
750 return $self->_recurse_where([map { {$k => {$op, $_}} } @vals], $logic);
752 # LDNOTE : had planned to change the distribution logic when
753 # $op =~ $self->{inequality_op}, because of Morgan laws :
754 # with {field => {'!=' => [22, 33]}}, it would be ridiculous to generate
755 # WHERE field != 22 OR field != 33 : the user probably means
756 # WHERE field != 22 AND field != 33.
757 # To do this, replace the above to roughly :
758 # my $logic = ($op =~ $self->{inequality_op}) ? 'AND' : 'OR';
759 # return $self->_recurse_where([map { {$k => {$op, $_}} } @vals], $logic);
763 # try to DWIM on equality operators
764 # LDNOTE : not 100% sure this is the correct thing to do ...
765 return ($self->{sqlfalse}) if $op =~ $self->{equality_op};
766 return ($self->{sqltrue}) if $op =~ $self->{inequality_op};
769 puke "operator '$op' applied on an empty array (field '$k')";
774 sub _where_hashpair_SCALARREF {
775 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
776 $self->_debug("SCALAR($k) means literal SQL: $$v");
777 my $sql = $self->_quote($k) . " " . $$v;
781 # literal SQL with bind
782 sub _where_hashpair_ARRAYREFREF {
783 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
784 $self->_debug("REF($k) means literal SQL: @${$v}");
785 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$v};
786 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
787 $sql = $self->_quote($k) . " " . $sql;
788 return ($sql, @bind );
791 # literal SQL without bind
792 sub _where_hashpair_SCALAR {
793 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
794 $self->_debug("NOREF($k) means simple key=val: $k $self->{cmp} $v");
795 my $sql = join ' ', $self->_convert($self->_quote($k)),
796 $self->_sqlcase($self->{cmp}),
797 $self->_convert('?');
798 my @bind = $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
799 return ( $sql, @bind);
803 sub _where_hashpair_UNDEF {
804 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
805 $self->_debug("UNDEF($k) means IS NULL");
806 my $sql = $self->_quote($k) . $self->_sqlcase(' is null');
810 #======================================================================
811 # WHERE: TOP-LEVEL OTHERS (SCALARREF, SCALAR, UNDEF)
812 #======================================================================
815 sub _where_SCALARREF {
816 my ($self, $where) = @_;
819 $self->_debug("SCALAR(*top) means literal SQL: $$where");
825 my ($self, $where) = @_;
828 $self->_debug("NOREF(*top) means literal SQL: $where");
839 #======================================================================
840 # WHERE: BUILTIN SPECIAL OPERATORS (-in, -between)
841 #======================================================================
844 sub _where_field_BETWEEN {
845 my ($self, $k, $op, $vals) = @_;
847 my ($label, $and, $placeholder);
848 $label = $self->_convert($self->_quote($k));
849 $and = ' ' . $self->_sqlcase('and') . ' ';
850 $placeholder = $self->_convert('?');
851 $op = $self->_sqlcase($op);
853 my ($clause, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($vals, {
861 puke "special op 'between' accepts an arrayref with exactly two values"
864 my (@all_sql, @all_bind);
865 foreach my $val (@$vals) {
866 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($val, {
868 return ($placeholder, ($val));
871 return ($self->_convert($$val), ());
874 my ($sql, @bind) = @$$val;
875 return ($self->_convert($sql), @bind);
879 push @all_bind, @bind;
883 (join $and, @all_sql),
884 $self->_bindtype($k, @all_bind),
888 puke "special op 'between' accepts an arrayref with two values, or a single literal scalarref/arrayref-ref";
892 my $sql = "( $label $op $clause )";
897 sub _where_field_IN {
898 my ($self, $k, $op, $vals) = @_;
900 # backwards compatibility : if scalar, force into an arrayref
901 $vals = [$vals] if defined $vals && ! ref $vals;
903 my ($label) = $self->_convert($self->_quote($k));
904 my ($placeholder) = $self->_convert('?');
905 $op = $self->_sqlcase($op);
907 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($vals, {
908 ARRAYREF => sub { # list of choices
909 if (@$vals) { # nonempty list
910 my $placeholders = join ", ", (($placeholder) x @$vals);
911 my $sql = "$label $op ( $placeholders )";
912 my @bind = $self->_bindtype($k, @$vals);
914 return ($sql, @bind);
916 else { # empty list : some databases won't understand "IN ()", so DWIM
917 my $sql = ($op =~ /\bnot\b/i) ? $self->{sqltrue} : $self->{sqlfalse};
922 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL
923 my $sql = $self->_open_outer_paren ($$vals);
924 return ("$label $op ( $sql )");
926 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
927 my ($sql, @bind) = @$$vals;
928 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
929 $sql = $self->_open_outer_paren ($sql);
930 return ("$label $op ( $sql )", @bind);
934 puke "special op 'in' requires an arrayref (or scalarref/arrayref-ref)";
938 return ($sql, @bind);
941 # Some databases (SQLite) treat col IN (1, 2) different from
942 # col IN ( (1, 2) ). Use this to strip all outer parens while
943 # adding them back in the corresponding method
944 sub _open_outer_paren {
945 my ($self, $sql) = @_;
946 $sql = $1 while $sql =~ /^ \s* \( (.*) \) \s* $/xs;
951 #======================================================================
953 #======================================================================
956 my ($self, $arg) = @_;
959 for my $c ($self->_order_by_chunks ($arg) ) {
960 $self->_SWITCH_refkind ($c, {
961 SCALAR => sub { push @sql, $c },
962 ARRAYREF => sub { push @sql, shift @$c; push @bind, @$c },
968 $self->_sqlcase(' order by'),
974 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
977 sub _order_by_chunks {
978 my ($self, $arg) = @_;
980 return $self->_SWITCH_refkind($arg, {
983 map { $self->_order_by_chunks ($_ ) } @$arg;
986 ARRAYREFREF => sub { [ @$$arg ] },
988 SCALAR => sub {$self->_quote($arg)},
990 UNDEF => sub {return () },
992 SCALARREF => sub {$$arg}, # literal SQL, no quoting
995 # get first pair in hash
996 my ($key, $val) = each %$arg;
998 return () unless $key;
1000 if ( (keys %$arg) > 1 or not $key =~ /^-(desc|asc)/i ) {
1001 puke "hash passed to _order_by must have exactly one key (-desc or -asc)";
1007 for my $c ($self->_order_by_chunks ($val)) {
1010 $self->_SWITCH_refkind ($c, {
1015 ($sql, @bind) = @$c;
1019 $sql = $sql . ' ' . $self->_sqlcase($direction);
1021 push @ret, [ $sql, @bind];
1030 #======================================================================
1031 # DATASOURCE (FOR NOW, JUST PLAIN TABLE OR LIST OF TABLES)
1032 #======================================================================
1037 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($from, {
1038 ARRAYREF => sub {join ', ', map { $self->_quote($_) } @$from;},
1039 SCALAR => sub {$self->_quote($from)},
1040 SCALARREF => sub {$$from},
1041 ARRAYREFREF => sub {join ', ', @$from;},
1046 #======================================================================
1048 #======================================================================
1054 $label or puke "can't quote an empty label";
1056 # left and right quote characters
1057 my ($ql, $qr, @other) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($self->{quote_char}, {
1058 SCALAR => sub {($self->{quote_char}, $self->{quote_char})},
1059 ARRAYREF => sub {@{$self->{quote_char}}},
1063 or puke "quote_char must be an arrayref of 2 values";
1065 # no quoting if no quoting chars
1066 $ql or return $label;
1068 # no quoting for literal SQL
1069 return $$label if ref($label) eq 'SCALAR';
1071 # separate table / column (if applicable)
1072 my $sep = $self->{name_sep} || '';
1073 my @to_quote = $sep ? split /\Q$sep\E/, $label : ($label);
1075 # do the quoting, except for "*" or for `table`.*
1076 my @quoted = map { $_ eq '*' ? $_: $ql.$_.$qr} @to_quote;
1078 # reassemble and return.
1079 return join $sep, @quoted;
1083 # Conversion, if applicable
1085 my ($self, $arg) = @_;
1087 # LDNOTE : modified the previous implementation below because
1088 # it was not consistent : the first "return" is always an array,
1089 # the second "return" is context-dependent. Anyway, _convert
1090 # seems always used with just a single argument, so make it a
1092 # return @_ unless $self->{convert};
1093 # my $conv = $self->_sqlcase($self->{convert});
1094 # my @ret = map { $conv.'('.$_.')' } @_;
1095 # return wantarray ? @ret : $ret[0];
1096 if ($self->{convert}) {
1097 my $conv = $self->_sqlcase($self->{convert});
1098 $arg = $conv.'('.$arg.')';
1106 my($col, @vals) = @_;
1108 #LDNOTE : changed original implementation below because it did not make
1109 # sense when bindtype eq 'columns' and @vals > 1.
1110 # return $self->{bindtype} eq 'columns' ? [ $col, @vals ] : @vals;
1112 return $self->{bindtype} eq 'columns' ? map {[$col, $_]} @vals : @vals;
1115 # Dies if any element of @bind is not in [colname => value] format
1116 # if bindtype is 'columns'.
1117 sub _assert_bindval_matches_bindtype {
1118 my ($self, @bind) = @_;
1120 if ($self->{bindtype} eq 'columns') {
1121 foreach my $val (@bind) {
1122 if (!defined $val || ref($val) ne 'ARRAY' || @$val != 2) {
1123 die "bindtype 'columns' selected, you need to pass: [column_name => bind_value]"
1129 sub _join_sql_clauses {
1130 my ($self, $logic, $clauses_aref, $bind_aref) = @_;
1132 if (@$clauses_aref > 1) {
1133 my $join = " " . $self->_sqlcase($logic) . " ";
1134 my $sql = '( ' . join($join, @$clauses_aref) . ' )';
1135 return ($sql, @$bind_aref);
1137 elsif (@$clauses_aref) {
1138 return ($clauses_aref->[0], @$bind_aref); # no parentheses
1141 return (); # if no SQL, ignore @$bind_aref
1146 # Fix SQL case, if so requested
1150 # LDNOTE: if $self->{case} is true, then it contains 'lower', so we
1151 # don't touch the argument ... crooked logic, but let's not change it!
1152 return $self->{case} ? $_[0] : uc($_[0]);
1156 #======================================================================
1157 # DISPATCHING FROM REFKIND
1158 #======================================================================
1161 my ($self, $data) = @_;
1167 # blessed objects are treated like scalars
1168 $ref = (Scalar::Util::blessed $data) ? '' : ref $data;
1169 $n_steps += 1 if $ref;
1170 last if $ref ne 'REF';
1174 my $base = $ref || (defined $data ? 'SCALAR' : 'UNDEF');
1176 return $base . ('REF' x $n_steps);
1182 my ($self, $data) = @_;
1183 my @try = ($self->_refkind($data));
1184 push @try, 'SCALAR_or_UNDEF' if $try[0] eq 'SCALAR' || $try[0] eq 'UNDEF';
1185 push @try, 'FALLBACK';
1189 sub _METHOD_FOR_refkind {
1190 my ($self, $meth_prefix, $data) = @_;
1193 for ($self->_try_refkind($data)) {
1194 $method = $self->can($meth_prefix."_".$_)
1198 return $method || puke "cannot dispatch on '$meth_prefix' for ".$self->_refkind($data);
1202 sub _SWITCH_refkind {
1203 my ($self, $data, $dispatch_table) = @_;
1206 for ($self->_try_refkind($data)) {
1207 $coderef = $dispatch_table->{$_}
1211 puke "no dispatch entry for ".$self->_refkind($data)
1220 #======================================================================
1221 # VALUES, GENERATE, AUTOLOAD
1222 #======================================================================
1224 # LDNOTE: original code from nwiger, didn't touch code in that section
1225 # I feel the AUTOLOAD stuff should not be the default, it should
1226 # only be activated on explicit demand by user.
1230 my $data = shift || return;
1231 puke "Argument to ", __PACKAGE__, "->values must be a \\%hash"
1232 unless ref $data eq 'HASH';
1235 foreach my $k ( sort keys %$data ) {
1236 my $v = $data->{$k};
1237 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
1239 if ($self->{array_datatypes}) { # array datatype
1240 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
1242 else { # literal SQL with bind
1243 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
1244 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1245 push @all_bind, @bind;
1248 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
1249 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$v};
1250 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1251 push @all_bind, @bind;
1253 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL without bind
1255 SCALAR_or_UNDEF => sub {
1256 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
1267 my(@sql, @sqlq, @sqlv);
1271 if ($ref eq 'HASH') {
1272 for my $k (sort keys %$_) {
1275 my $label = $self->_quote($k);
1276 if ($r eq 'ARRAY') {
1277 # literal SQL with bind
1278 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
1279 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1280 push @sqlq, "$label = $sql";
1282 } elsif ($r eq 'SCALAR') {
1283 # literal SQL without bind
1284 push @sqlq, "$label = $$v";
1286 push @sqlq, "$label = ?";
1287 push @sqlv, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
1290 push @sql, $self->_sqlcase('set'), join ', ', @sqlq;
1291 } elsif ($ref eq 'ARRAY') {
1292 # unlike insert(), assume these are ONLY the column names, i.e. for SQL
1295 if ($r eq 'ARRAY') { # literal SQL with bind
1296 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
1297 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1300 } elsif ($r eq 'SCALAR') { # literal SQL without bind
1301 # embedded literal SQL
1308 push @sql, '(' . join(', ', @sqlq) . ')';
1309 } elsif ($ref eq 'SCALAR') {
1313 # strings get case twiddled
1314 push @sql, $self->_sqlcase($_);
1318 my $sql = join ' ', @sql;
1320 # this is pretty tricky
1321 # if ask for an array, return ($stmt, @bind)
1322 # otherwise, s/?/shift @sqlv/ to put it inline
1324 return ($sql, @sqlv);
1326 1 while $sql =~ s/\?/my $d = shift(@sqlv);
1327 ref $d ? $d->[1] : $d/e;
1336 # This allows us to check for a local, then _form, attr
1338 my($name) = $AUTOLOAD =~ /.*::(.+)/;
1339 return $self->generate($name, @_);
1350 SQL::Abstract - Generate SQL from Perl data structures
1356 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new;
1358 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->select($table, \@fields, \%where, \@order);
1360 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert($table, \%fieldvals || \@values);
1362 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->update($table, \%fieldvals, \%where);
1364 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->delete($table, \%where);
1366 # Then, use these in your DBI statements
1367 my $sth = $dbh->prepare($stmt);
1368 $sth->execute(@bind);
1370 # Just generate the WHERE clause
1371 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->where(\%where, \@order);
1373 # Return values in the same order, for hashed queries
1374 # See PERFORMANCE section for more details
1375 my @bind = $sql->values(\%fieldvals);
1379 This module was inspired by the excellent L<DBIx::Abstract>.
1380 However, in using that module I found that what I really wanted
1381 to do was generate SQL, but still retain complete control over my
1382 statement handles and use the DBI interface. So, I set out to
1383 create an abstract SQL generation module.
1385 While based on the concepts used by L<DBIx::Abstract>, there are
1386 several important differences, especially when it comes to WHERE
1387 clauses. I have modified the concepts used to make the SQL easier
1388 to generate from Perl data structures and, IMO, more intuitive.
1389 The underlying idea is for this module to do what you mean, based
1390 on the data structures you provide it. The big advantage is that
1391 you don't have to modify your code every time your data changes,
1392 as this module figures it out.
1394 To begin with, an SQL INSERT is as easy as just specifying a hash
1395 of C<key=value> pairs:
1398 name => 'Jimbo Bobson',
1399 phone => '123-456-7890',
1400 address => '42 Sister Lane',
1401 city => 'St. Louis',
1402 state => 'Louisiana',
1405 The SQL can then be generated with this:
1407 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert('people', \%data);
1409 Which would give you something like this:
1411 $stmt = "INSERT INTO people
1412 (address, city, name, phone, state)
1413 VALUES (?, ?, ?, ?, ?)";
1414 @bind = ('42 Sister Lane', 'St. Louis', 'Jimbo Bobson',
1415 '123-456-7890', 'Louisiana');
1417 These are then used directly in your DBI code:
1419 my $sth = $dbh->prepare($stmt);
1420 $sth->execute(@bind);
1422 =head2 Inserting and Updating Arrays
1424 If your database has array types (like for example Postgres),
1425 activate the special option C<< array_datatypes => 1 >>
1426 when creating the C<SQL::Abstract> object.
1427 Then you may use an arrayref to insert and update database array types:
1429 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(array_datatypes => 1);
1431 planets => [qw/Mercury Venus Earth Mars/]
1434 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert('solar_system', \%data);
1438 $stmt = "INSERT INTO solar_system (planets) VALUES (?)"
1440 @bind = (['Mercury', 'Venus', 'Earth', 'Mars']);
1443 =head2 Inserting and Updating SQL
1445 In order to apply SQL functions to elements of your C<%data> you may
1446 specify a reference to an arrayref for the given hash value. For example,
1447 if you need to execute the Oracle C<to_date> function on a value, you can
1448 say something like this:
1452 date_entered => \["to_date(?,'MM/DD/YYYY')", "03/02/2003"],
1455 The first value in the array is the actual SQL. Any other values are
1456 optional and would be included in the bind values array. This gives
1459 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert('people', \%data);
1461 $stmt = "INSERT INTO people (name, date_entered)
1462 VALUES (?, to_date(?,'MM/DD/YYYY'))";
1463 @bind = ('Bill', '03/02/2003');
1465 An UPDATE is just as easy, all you change is the name of the function:
1467 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->update('people', \%data);
1469 Notice that your C<%data> isn't touched; the module will generate
1470 the appropriately quirky SQL for you automatically. Usually you'll
1471 want to specify a WHERE clause for your UPDATE, though, which is
1472 where handling C<%where> hashes comes in handy...
1474 =head2 Complex where statements
1476 This module can generate pretty complicated WHERE statements
1477 easily. For example, simple C<key=value> pairs are taken to mean
1478 equality, and if you want to see if a field is within a set
1479 of values, you can use an arrayref. Let's say we wanted to
1480 SELECT some data based on this criteria:
1483 requestor => 'inna',
1484 worker => ['nwiger', 'rcwe', 'sfz'],
1485 status => { '!=', 'completed' }
1488 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->select('tickets', '*', \%where);
1490 The above would give you something like this:
1492 $stmt = "SELECT * FROM tickets WHERE
1493 ( requestor = ? ) AND ( status != ? )
1494 AND ( worker = ? OR worker = ? OR worker = ? )";
1495 @bind = ('inna', 'completed', 'nwiger', 'rcwe', 'sfz');
1497 Which you could then use in DBI code like so:
1499 my $sth = $dbh->prepare($stmt);
1500 $sth->execute(@bind);
1506 The functions are simple. There's one for each major SQL operation,
1507 and a constructor you use first. The arguments are specified in a
1508 similar order to each function (table, then fields, then a where
1509 clause) to try and simplify things.
1514 =head2 new(option => 'value')
1516 The C<new()> function takes a list of options and values, and returns
1517 a new B<SQL::Abstract> object which can then be used to generate SQL
1518 through the methods below. The options accepted are:
1524 If set to 'lower', then SQL will be generated in all lowercase. By
1525 default SQL is generated in "textbook" case meaning something like:
1527 SELECT a_field FROM a_table WHERE some_field LIKE '%someval%'
1529 Any setting other than 'lower' is ignored.
1533 This determines what the default comparison operator is. By default
1534 it is C<=>, meaning that a hash like this:
1536 %where = (name => 'nwiger', email => 'nate@wiger.org');
1538 Will generate SQL like this:
1540 WHERE name = 'nwiger' AND email = 'nate@wiger.org'
1542 However, you may want loose comparisons by default, so if you set
1543 C<cmp> to C<like> you would get SQL such as:
1545 WHERE name like 'nwiger' AND email like 'nate@wiger.org'
1547 You can also override the comparsion on an individual basis - see
1548 the huge section on L</"WHERE CLAUSES"> at the bottom.
1550 =item sqltrue, sqlfalse
1552 Expressions for inserting boolean values within SQL statements.
1553 By default these are C<1=1> and C<1=0>. They are used
1554 by the special operators C<-in> and C<-not_in> for generating
1555 correct SQL even when the argument is an empty array (see below).
1559 This determines the default logical operator for multiple WHERE
1560 statements in arrays or hashes. If absent, the default logic is "or"
1561 for arrays, and "and" for hashes. This means that a WHERE
1565 event_date => {'>=', '2/13/99'},
1566 event_date => {'<=', '4/24/03'},
1569 will generate SQL like this:
1571 WHERE event_date >= '2/13/99' OR event_date <= '4/24/03'
1573 This is probably not what you want given this query, though (look
1574 at the dates). To change the "OR" to an "AND", simply specify:
1576 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(logic => 'and');
1578 Which will change the above C<WHERE> to:
1580 WHERE event_date >= '2/13/99' AND event_date <= '4/24/03'
1582 The logic can also be changed locally by inserting
1583 a modifier in front of an arrayref :
1585 @where = (-and => [event_date => {'>=', '2/13/99'},
1586 event_date => {'<=', '4/24/03'} ]);
1588 See the L</"WHERE CLAUSES"> section for explanations.
1592 This will automatically convert comparisons using the specified SQL
1593 function for both column and value. This is mostly used with an argument
1594 of C<upper> or C<lower>, so that the SQL will have the effect of
1595 case-insensitive "searches". For example, this:
1597 $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(convert => 'upper');
1598 %where = (keywords => 'MaKe iT CAse inSeNSItive');
1600 Will turn out the following SQL:
1602 WHERE upper(keywords) like upper('MaKe iT CAse inSeNSItive')
1604 The conversion can be C<upper()>, C<lower()>, or any other SQL function
1605 that can be applied symmetrically to fields (actually B<SQL::Abstract> does
1606 not validate this option; it will just pass through what you specify verbatim).
1610 This is a kludge because many databases suck. For example, you can't
1611 just bind values using DBI's C<execute()> for Oracle C<CLOB> or C<BLOB> fields.
1612 Instead, you have to use C<bind_param()>:
1614 $sth->bind_param(1, 'reg data');
1615 $sth->bind_param(2, $lots, {ora_type => ORA_CLOB});
1617 The problem is, B<SQL::Abstract> will normally just return a C<@bind> array,
1618 which loses track of which field each slot refers to. Fear not.
1620 If you specify C<bindtype> in new, you can determine how C<@bind> is returned.
1621 Currently, you can specify either C<normal> (default) or C<columns>. If you
1622 specify C<columns>, you will get an array that looks like this:
1624 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(bindtype => 'columns');
1625 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert(...);
1628 [ 'column1', 'value1' ],
1629 [ 'column2', 'value2' ],
1630 [ 'column3', 'value3' ],
1633 You can then iterate through this manually, using DBI's C<bind_param()>.
1635 $sth->prepare($stmt);
1638 my($col, $data) = @$_;
1639 if ($col eq 'details' || $col eq 'comments') {
1640 $sth->bind_param($i, $data, {ora_type => ORA_CLOB});
1641 } elsif ($col eq 'image') {
1642 $sth->bind_param($i, $data, {ora_type => ORA_BLOB});
1644 $sth->bind_param($i, $data);
1648 $sth->execute; # execute without @bind now
1650 Now, why would you still use B<SQL::Abstract> if you have to do this crap?
1651 Basically, the advantage is still that you don't have to care which fields
1652 are or are not included. You could wrap that above C<for> loop in a simple
1653 sub called C<bind_fields()> or something and reuse it repeatedly. You still
1654 get a layer of abstraction over manual SQL specification.
1656 Note that if you set L</bindtype> to C<columns>, the C<\[$sql, @bind]>
1657 construct (see L</Literal SQL with placeholders and bind values (subqueries)>)
1658 will expect the bind values in this format.
1662 This is the character that a table or column name will be quoted
1663 with. By default this is an empty string, but you could set it to
1664 the character C<`>, to generate SQL like this:
1666 SELECT `a_field` FROM `a_table` WHERE `some_field` LIKE '%someval%'
1668 Alternatively, you can supply an array ref of two items, the first being the left
1669 hand quote character, and the second the right hand quote character. For
1670 example, you could supply C<['[',']']> for SQL Server 2000 compliant quotes
1671 that generates SQL like this:
1673 SELECT [a_field] FROM [a_table] WHERE [some_field] LIKE '%someval%'
1675 Quoting is useful if you have tables or columns names that are reserved
1676 words in your database's SQL dialect.
1680 This is the character that separates a table and column name. It is
1681 necessary to specify this when the C<quote_char> option is selected,
1682 so that tables and column names can be individually quoted like this:
1684 SELECT `table`.`one_field` FROM `table` WHERE `table`.`other_field` = 1
1686 =item array_datatypes
1688 When this option is true, arrayrefs in INSERT or UPDATE are
1689 interpreted as array datatypes and are passed directly
1691 When this option is false, arrayrefs are interpreted
1692 as literal SQL, just like refs to arrayrefs
1693 (but this behavior is for backwards compatibility; when writing
1694 new queries, use the "reference to arrayref" syntax
1700 Takes a reference to a list of "special operators"
1701 to extend the syntax understood by L<SQL::Abstract>.
1702 See section L</"SPECIAL OPERATORS"> for details.
1706 Takes a reference to a list of "unary operators"
1707 to extend the syntax understood by L<SQL::Abstract>.
1708 See section L</"UNARY OPERATORS"> for details.
1714 =head2 insert($table, \@values || \%fieldvals, \%options)
1716 This is the simplest function. You simply give it a table name
1717 and either an arrayref of values or hashref of field/value pairs.
1718 It returns an SQL INSERT statement and a list of bind values.
1719 See the sections on L</"Inserting and Updating Arrays"> and
1720 L</"Inserting and Updating SQL"> for information on how to insert
1721 with those data types.
1723 The optional C<\%options> hash reference may contain additional
1724 options to generate the insert SQL. Currently supported options
1731 Takes either a scalar of raw SQL fields, or an array reference of
1732 field names, and adds on an SQL C<RETURNING> statement at the end.
1733 This allows you to return data generated by the insert statement
1734 (such as row IDs) without performing another C<SELECT> statement.
1735 Note, however, this is not part of the SQL standard and may not
1736 be supported by all database engines.
1740 =head2 update($table, \%fieldvals, \%where)
1742 This takes a table, hashref of field/value pairs, and an optional
1743 hashref L<WHERE clause|/WHERE CLAUSES>. It returns an SQL UPDATE function and a list
1745 See the sections on L</"Inserting and Updating Arrays"> and
1746 L</"Inserting and Updating SQL"> for information on how to insert
1747 with those data types.
1749 =head2 select($source, $fields, $where, $order)
1751 This returns a SQL SELECT statement and associated list of bind values, as
1752 specified by the arguments :
1758 Specification of the 'FROM' part of the statement.
1759 The argument can be either a plain scalar (interpreted as a table
1760 name, will be quoted), or an arrayref (interpreted as a list
1761 of table names, joined by commas, quoted), or a scalarref
1762 (literal table name, not quoted), or a ref to an arrayref
1763 (list of literal table names, joined by commas, not quoted).
1767 Specification of the list of fields to retrieve from
1769 The argument can be either an arrayref (interpreted as a list
1770 of field names, will be joined by commas and quoted), or a
1771 plain scalar (literal SQL, not quoted).
1772 Please observe that this API is not as flexible as for
1773 the first argument C<$table>, for backwards compatibility reasons.
1777 Optional argument to specify the WHERE part of the query.
1778 The argument is most often a hashref, but can also be
1779 an arrayref or plain scalar --
1780 see section L<WHERE clause|/"WHERE CLAUSES"> for details.
1784 Optional argument to specify the ORDER BY part of the query.
1785 The argument can be a scalar, a hashref or an arrayref
1786 -- see section L<ORDER BY clause|/"ORDER BY CLAUSES">
1792 =head2 delete($table, \%where)
1794 This takes a table name and optional hashref L<WHERE clause|/WHERE CLAUSES>.
1795 It returns an SQL DELETE statement and list of bind values.
1797 =head2 where(\%where, \@order)
1799 This is used to generate just the WHERE clause. For example,
1800 if you have an arbitrary data structure and know what the
1801 rest of your SQL is going to look like, but want an easy way
1802 to produce a WHERE clause, use this. It returns an SQL WHERE
1803 clause and list of bind values.
1806 =head2 values(\%data)
1808 This just returns the values from the hash C<%data>, in the same
1809 order that would be returned from any of the other above queries.
1810 Using this allows you to markedly speed up your queries if you
1811 are affecting lots of rows. See below under the L</"PERFORMANCE"> section.
1813 =head2 generate($any, 'number', $of, \@data, $struct, \%types)
1815 Warning: This is an experimental method and subject to change.
1817 This returns arbitrarily generated SQL. It's a really basic shortcut.
1818 It will return two different things, depending on return context:
1820 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->generate('create table', \$table, \@fields);
1821 my $stmt_and_val = $sql->generate('create table', \$table, \@fields);
1823 These would return the following:
1825 # First calling form
1826 $stmt = "CREATE TABLE test (?, ?)";
1827 @bind = (field1, field2);
1829 # Second calling form
1830 $stmt_and_val = "CREATE TABLE test (field1, field2)";
1832 Depending on what you're trying to do, it's up to you to choose the correct
1833 format. In this example, the second form is what you would want.
1837 $sql->generate('alter session', { nls_date_format => 'MM/YY' });
1841 ALTER SESSION SET nls_date_format = 'MM/YY'
1843 You get the idea. Strings get their case twiddled, but everything
1844 else remains verbatim.
1849 =head1 WHERE CLAUSES
1853 This module uses a variation on the idea from L<DBIx::Abstract>. It
1854 is B<NOT>, repeat I<not> 100% compatible. B<The main logic of this
1855 module is that things in arrays are OR'ed, and things in hashes
1858 The easiest way to explain is to show lots of examples. After
1859 each C<%where> hash shown, it is assumed you used:
1861 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->where(\%where);
1863 However, note that the C<%where> hash can be used directly in any
1864 of the other functions as well, as described above.
1866 =head2 Key-value pairs
1868 So, let's get started. To begin, a simple hash:
1872 status => 'completed'
1875 Is converted to SQL C<key = val> statements:
1877 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND status = ?";
1878 @bind = ('nwiger', 'completed');
1880 One common thing I end up doing is having a list of values that
1881 a field can be in. To do this, simply specify a list inside of
1886 status => ['assigned', 'in-progress', 'pending'];
1889 This simple code will create the following:
1891 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND ( status = ? OR status = ? OR status = ? )";
1892 @bind = ('nwiger', 'assigned', 'in-progress', 'pending');
1894 A field associated to an empty arrayref will be considered a
1895 logical false and will generate 0=1.
1897 =head2 Specific comparison operators
1899 If you want to specify a different type of operator for your comparison,
1900 you can use a hashref for a given column:
1904 status => { '!=', 'completed' }
1907 Which would generate:
1909 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND status != ?";
1910 @bind = ('nwiger', 'completed');
1912 To test against multiple values, just enclose the values in an arrayref:
1914 status => { '=', ['assigned', 'in-progress', 'pending'] };
1916 Which would give you:
1918 "WHERE status = ? OR status = ? OR status = ?"
1921 The hashref can also contain multiple pairs, in which case it is expanded
1922 into an C<AND> of its elements:
1926 status => { '!=', 'completed', -not_like => 'pending%' }
1929 # Or more dynamically, like from a form
1930 $where{user} = 'nwiger';
1931 $where{status}{'!='} = 'completed';
1932 $where{status}{'-not_like'} = 'pending%';
1934 # Both generate this
1935 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND status != ? AND status NOT LIKE ?";
1936 @bind = ('nwiger', 'completed', 'pending%');
1939 To get an OR instead, you can combine it with the arrayref idea:
1943 priority => [ {'=', 2}, {'!=', 1} ]
1946 Which would generate:
1948 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND priority = ? OR priority != ?";
1949 @bind = ('nwiger', '2', '1');
1951 If you want to include literal SQL (with or without bind values), just use a
1952 scalar reference or array reference as the value:
1955 date_entered => { '>' => \["to_date(?, 'MM/DD/YYYY')", "11/26/2008"] },
1956 date_expires => { '<' => \"now()" }
1959 Which would generate:
1961 $stmt = "WHERE date_entered > "to_date(?, 'MM/DD/YYYY') AND date_expires < now()";
1962 @bind = ('11/26/2008');
1965 =head2 Logic and nesting operators
1967 In the example above,
1968 there is a subtle trap if you want to say something like
1969 this (notice the C<AND>):
1971 WHERE priority != ? AND priority != ?
1973 Because, in Perl you I<can't> do this:
1975 priority => { '!=', 2, '!=', 1 }
1977 As the second C<!=> key will obliterate the first. The solution
1978 is to use the special C<-modifier> form inside an arrayref:
1980 priority => [ -and => {'!=', 2},
1984 Normally, these would be joined by C<OR>, but the modifier tells it
1985 to use C<AND> instead. (Hint: You can use this in conjunction with the
1986 C<logic> option to C<new()> in order to change the way your queries
1987 work by default.) B<Important:> Note that the C<-modifier> goes
1988 B<INSIDE> the arrayref, as an extra first element. This will
1989 B<NOT> do what you think it might:
1991 priority => -and => [{'!=', 2}, {'!=', 1}] # WRONG!
1993 Here is a quick list of equivalencies, since there is some overlap:
1996 status => {'!=', 'completed', 'not like', 'pending%' }
1997 status => [ -and => {'!=', 'completed'}, {'not like', 'pending%'}]
2000 status => {'=', ['assigned', 'in-progress']}
2001 status => [ -or => {'=', 'assigned'}, {'=', 'in-progress'}]
2002 status => [ {'=', 'assigned'}, {'=', 'in-progress'} ]
2006 =head2 Special operators : IN, BETWEEN, etc.
2008 You can also use the hashref format to compare a list of fields using the
2009 C<IN> comparison operator, by specifying the list as an arrayref:
2012 status => 'completed',
2013 reportid => { -in => [567, 2335, 2] }
2016 Which would generate:
2018 $stmt = "WHERE status = ? AND reportid IN (?,?,?)";
2019 @bind = ('completed', '567', '2335', '2');
2021 The reverse operator C<-not_in> generates SQL C<NOT IN> and is used in
2024 If the argument to C<-in> is an empty array, 'sqlfalse' is generated
2025 (by default : C<1=0>). Similarly, C<< -not_in => [] >> generates
2026 'sqltrue' (by default : C<1=1>).
2028 In addition to the array you can supply a chunk of literal sql or
2029 literal sql with bind:
2032 customer => { -in => \[
2033 'SELECT cust_id FROM cust WHERE balance > ?',
2036 status => { -in => \'SELECT status_codes FROM states' },
2042 customer IN ( SELECT cust_id FROM cust WHERE balance > ? )
2043 AND status IN ( SELECT status_codes FROM states )
2049 Another pair of operators is C<-between> and C<-not_between>,
2050 used with an arrayref of two values:
2054 completion_date => {
2055 -not_between => ['2002-10-01', '2003-02-06']
2061 WHERE user = ? AND completion_date NOT BETWEEN ( ? AND ? )
2063 Just like with C<-in> all plausible combinations of literal SQL
2067 start0 => { -between => [ 1, 2 ] },
2068 start1 => { -between => \["? AND ?", 1, 2] },
2069 start2 => { -between => \"lower(x) AND upper(y)" },
2070 start3 => { -between => [
2072 \["upper(?)", 'stuff' ],
2079 ( start0 BETWEEN ? AND ? )
2080 AND ( start1 BETWEEN ? AND ? )
2081 AND ( start2 BETWEEN lower(x) AND upper(y) )
2082 AND ( start3 BETWEEN lower(x) AND upper(?) )
2084 @bind = (1, 2, 1, 2, 'stuff');
2087 These are the two builtin "special operators"; but the
2088 list can be expanded : see section L</"SPECIAL OPERATORS"> below.
2090 =head2 Unary operators: bool
2092 If you wish to test against boolean columns or functions within your
2093 database you can use the C<-bool> and C<-not_bool> operators. For
2094 example to test the column C<is_user> being true and the column
2095 <is_enabled> being false you would use:-
2099 -not_bool => 'is_enabled',
2104 WHERE is_user AND NOT is_enabled
2106 If a more complex combination is required, testing more conditions,
2107 then you should use the and/or operators:-
2114 -not_bool => 'four',
2120 WHERE one AND two AND three AND NOT four
2123 =head2 Nested conditions, -and/-or prefixes
2125 So far, we've seen how multiple conditions are joined with a top-level
2126 C<AND>. We can change this by putting the different conditions we want in
2127 hashes and then putting those hashes in an array. For example:
2132 status => { -like => ['pending%', 'dispatched'] },
2136 status => 'unassigned',
2140 This data structure would create the following:
2142 $stmt = "WHERE ( user = ? AND ( status LIKE ? OR status LIKE ? ) )
2143 OR ( user = ? AND status = ? ) )";
2144 @bind = ('nwiger', 'pending', 'dispatched', 'robot', 'unassigned');
2147 There is also a special C<-nest>
2148 operator which adds an additional set of parens, to create a subquery.
2149 For example, to get something like this:
2151 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND ( workhrs > ? OR geo = ? )";
2152 @bind = ('nwiger', '20', 'ASIA');
2158 -nest => [ workhrs => {'>', 20}, geo => 'ASIA' ],
2162 Finally, clauses in hashrefs or arrayrefs can be
2163 prefixed with an C<-and> or C<-or> to change the logic
2170 -and => [workhrs => {'>', 20}, geo => 'ASIA' ],
2171 -and => [workhrs => {'<', 50}, geo => 'EURO' ]
2178 WHERE ( user = ? AND
2179 ( ( workhrs > ? AND geo = ? )
2180 OR ( workhrs < ? AND geo = ? ) ) )
2183 =head2 Algebraic inconsistency, for historical reasons
2185 C<Important note>: when connecting several conditions, the C<-and->|C<-or>
2186 operator goes C<outside> of the nested structure; whereas when connecting
2187 several constraints on one column, the C<-and> operator goes
2188 C<inside> the arrayref. Here is an example combining both features :
2191 -and => [a => 1, b => 2],
2192 -or => [c => 3, d => 4],
2193 e => [-and => {-like => 'foo%'}, {-like => '%bar'} ]
2198 WHERE ( ( ( a = ? AND b = ? )
2199 OR ( c = ? OR d = ? )
2200 OR ( e LIKE ? AND e LIKE ? ) ) )
2202 This difference in syntax is unfortunate but must be preserved for
2203 historical reasons. So be careful : the two examples below would
2204 seem algebraically equivalent, but they are not
2206 {col => [-and => {-like => 'foo%'}, {-like => '%bar'}]}
2207 # yields : WHERE ( ( col LIKE ? AND col LIKE ? ) )
2209 [-and => {col => {-like => 'foo%'}, {col => {-like => '%bar'}}]]
2210 # yields : WHERE ( ( col LIKE ? OR col LIKE ? ) )
2215 Finally, sometimes only literal SQL will do. If you want to include
2216 literal SQL verbatim, you can specify it as a scalar reference, namely:
2218 my $inn = 'is Not Null';
2220 priority => { '<', 2 },
2226 $stmt = "WHERE priority < ? AND requestor is Not Null";
2229 Note that in this example, you only get one bind parameter back, since
2230 the verbatim SQL is passed as part of the statement.
2232 Of course, just to prove a point, the above can also be accomplished
2236 priority => { '<', 2 },
2237 requestor => { '!=', undef },
2243 Conditions on boolean columns can be expressed in the same way, passing
2244 a reference to an empty string, however using liternal SQL in this way
2245 is deprecated - the preferred method is to use the boolean operators -
2246 see L</"Unary operators: bool"> :
2249 priority => { '<', 2 },
2255 $stmt = "WHERE priority < ? AND is_ready";
2259 =head2 Literal SQL with placeholders and bind values (subqueries)
2261 If the literal SQL to be inserted has placeholders and bind values,
2262 use a reference to an arrayref (yes this is a double reference --
2263 not so common, but perfectly legal Perl). For example, to find a date
2264 in Postgres you can use something like this:
2267 date_column => \[q/= date '2008-09-30' - ?::integer/, 10/]
2272 $stmt = "WHERE ( date_column = date '2008-09-30' - ?::integer )"
2275 Note that you must pass the bind values in the same format as they are returned
2276 by L</where>. That means that if you set L</bindtype> to C<columns>, you must
2277 provide the bind values in the C<< [ column_meta => value ] >> format, where
2278 C<column_meta> is an opaque scalar value; most commonly the column name, but
2279 you can use any scalar value (including references and blessed references),
2280 L<SQL::Abstract> will simply pass it through intact. So if C<bindtype> is set
2281 to C<columns> the above example will look like:
2284 date_column => \[q/= date '2008-09-30' - ?::integer/, [ dummy => 10 ]/]
2287 Literal SQL is especially useful for nesting parenthesized clauses in the
2288 main SQL query. Here is a first example :
2290 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind) = ("SELECT c1 FROM t1 WHERE c2 < ? AND c3 LIKE ?",
2294 bar => \["IN ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
2299 $stmt = "WHERE (foo = ? AND bar IN (SELECT c1 FROM t1
2300 WHERE c2 < ? AND c3 LIKE ?))";
2301 @bind = (1234, 100, "foo%");
2303 Other subquery operators, like for example C<"E<gt> ALL"> or C<"NOT IN">,
2304 are expressed in the same way. Of course the C<$sub_stmt> and
2305 its associated bind values can be generated through a former call
2308 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind)
2309 = $sql->select("t1", "c1", {c2 => {"<" => 100},
2310 c3 => {-like => "foo%"}});
2313 bar => \["> ALL ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
2316 In the examples above, the subquery was used as an operator on a column;
2317 but the same principle also applies for a clause within the main C<%where>
2318 hash, like an EXISTS subquery :
2320 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind)
2321 = $sql->select("t1", "*", {c1 => 1, c2 => \"> t0.c0"});
2324 -nest => \["EXISTS ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
2329 $stmt = "WHERE (foo = ? AND EXISTS (SELECT * FROM t1
2330 WHERE c1 = ? AND c2 > t0.c0))";
2334 Observe that the condition on C<c2> in the subquery refers to
2335 column C<t0.c0> of the main query : this is I<not> a bind
2336 value, so we have to express it through a scalar ref.
2337 Writing C<< c2 => {">" => "t0.c0"} >> would have generated
2338 C<< c2 > ? >> with bind value C<"t0.c0"> ... not exactly
2339 what we wanted here.
2341 Another use of the subquery technique is when some SQL clauses need
2342 parentheses, as it often occurs with some proprietary SQL extensions
2343 like for example fulltext expressions, geospatial expressions,
2344 NATIVE clauses, etc. Here is an example of a fulltext query in MySQL :
2347 -nest => \["MATCH (col1, col2) AGAINST (?)" => qw/apples/]
2350 Finally, here is an example where a subquery is used
2351 for expressing unary negation:
2353 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind)
2354 = $sql->where({age => [{"<" => 10}, {">" => 20}]});
2355 $sub_stmt =~ s/^ where //i; # don't want "WHERE" in the subclause
2357 lname => {like => '%son%'},
2358 -nest => \["NOT ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
2363 $stmt = "lname LIKE ? AND NOT ( age < ? OR age > ? )"
2364 @bind = ('%son%', 10, 20)
2370 These pages could go on for a while, since the nesting of the data
2371 structures this module can handle are pretty much unlimited (the
2372 module implements the C<WHERE> expansion as a recursive function
2373 internally). Your best bet is to "play around" with the module a
2374 little to see how the data structures behave, and choose the best
2375 format for your data based on that.
2377 And of course, all the values above will probably be replaced with
2378 variables gotten from forms or the command line. After all, if you
2379 knew everything ahead of time, you wouldn't have to worry about
2380 dynamically-generating SQL and could just hardwire it into your
2386 =head1 ORDER BY CLAUSES
2388 Some functions take an order by clause. This can either be a scalar (just a
2389 column name,) a hash of C<< { -desc => 'col' } >> or C<< { -asc => 'col' } >>,
2390 or an array of either of the two previous forms. Examples:
2392 Given | Will Generate
2393 ----------------------------------------------------------
2395 \'colA DESC' | ORDER BY colA DESC
2397 'colA' | ORDER BY colA
2399 [qw/colA colB/] | ORDER BY colA, colB
2401 {-asc => 'colA'} | ORDER BY colA ASC
2403 {-desc => 'colB'} | ORDER BY colB DESC
2405 ['colA', {-asc => 'colB'}] | ORDER BY colA, colB ASC
2407 { -asc => [qw/colA colB] } | ORDER BY colA ASC, colB ASC
2410 { -asc => 'colA' }, | ORDER BY colA ASC, colB DESC,
2411 { -desc => [qw/colB/], | colC ASC, colD ASC
2412 { -asc => [qw/colC colD/],|
2414 ===========================================================
2418 =head1 SPECIAL OPERATORS
2420 my $sqlmaker = SQL::Abstract->new(special_ops => [
2424 my ($self, $field, $op, $arg) = @_;
2430 handler => 'method_name',
2434 A "special operator" is a SQL syntactic clause that can be
2435 applied to a field, instead of a usual binary operator.
2438 WHERE field IN (?, ?, ?)
2439 WHERE field BETWEEN ? AND ?
2440 WHERE MATCH(field) AGAINST (?, ?)
2442 Special operators IN and BETWEEN are fairly standard and therefore
2443 are builtin within C<SQL::Abstract> (as the overridable methods
2444 C<_where_field_IN> and C<_where_field_BETWEEN>). For other operators,
2445 like the MATCH .. AGAINST example above which is specific to MySQL,
2446 you can write your own operator handlers - supply a C<special_ops>
2447 argument to the C<new> method. That argument takes an arrayref of
2448 operator definitions; each operator definition is a hashref with two
2455 the regular expression to match the operator
2459 Either a coderef or a plain scalar method name. In both cases
2460 the expected return is C<< ($sql, @bind) >>.
2462 When supplied with a method name, it is simply called on the
2463 L<SQL::Abstract/> object as:
2465 $self->$method_name ($field, $op, $arg)
2469 $op is the part that matched the handler regex
2470 $field is the LHS of the operator
2473 When supplied with a coderef, it is called as:
2475 $coderef->($self, $field, $op, $arg)
2480 For example, here is an implementation
2481 of the MATCH .. AGAINST syntax for MySQL
2483 my $sqlmaker = SQL::Abstract->new(special_ops => [
2485 # special op for MySql MATCH (field) AGAINST(word1, word2, ...)
2486 {regex => qr/^match$/i,
2488 my ($self, $field, $op, $arg) = @_;
2489 $arg = [$arg] if not ref $arg;
2490 my $label = $self->_quote($field);
2491 my ($placeholder) = $self->_convert('?');
2492 my $placeholders = join ", ", (($placeholder) x @$arg);
2493 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('match') . " ($label) "
2494 . $self->_sqlcase('against') . " ($placeholders) ";
2495 my @bind = $self->_bindtype($field, @$arg);
2496 return ($sql, @bind);
2503 =head1 UNARY OPERATORS
2505 my $sqlmaker = SQL::Abstract->new(unary_ops => [
2509 my ($self, $op, $arg) = @_;
2515 handler => 'method_name',
2519 A "unary operator" is a SQL syntactic clause that can be
2520 applied to a field - the operator goes before the field
2522 You can write your own operator handlers - supply a C<unary_ops>
2523 argument to the C<new> method. That argument takes an arrayref of
2524 operator definitions; each operator definition is a hashref with two
2531 the regular expression to match the operator
2535 Either a coderef or a plain scalar method name. In both cases
2536 the expected return is C<< $sql >>.
2538 When supplied with a method name, it is simply called on the
2539 L<SQL::Abstract/> object as:
2541 $self->$method_name ($op, $arg)
2545 $op is the part that matched the handler regex
2546 $arg is the RHS or argument of the operator
2548 When supplied with a coderef, it is called as:
2550 $coderef->($self, $op, $arg)
2558 Thanks to some benchmarking by Mark Stosberg, it turns out that
2559 this module is many orders of magnitude faster than using C<DBIx::Abstract>.
2560 I must admit this wasn't an intentional design issue, but it's a
2561 byproduct of the fact that you get to control your C<DBI> handles
2564 To maximize performance, use a code snippet like the following:
2566 # prepare a statement handle using the first row
2567 # and then reuse it for the rest of the rows
2569 for my $href (@array_of_hashrefs) {
2570 $stmt ||= $sql->insert('table', $href);
2571 $sth ||= $dbh->prepare($stmt);
2572 $sth->execute($sql->values($href));
2575 The reason this works is because the keys in your C<$href> are sorted
2576 internally by B<SQL::Abstract>. Thus, as long as your data retains
2577 the same structure, you only have to generate the SQL the first time
2578 around. On subsequent queries, simply use the C<values> function provided
2579 by this module to return your values in the correct order.
2584 If you use my C<CGI::FormBuilder> module at all, you'll hopefully
2585 really like this part (I do, at least). Building up a complex query
2586 can be as simple as the following:
2590 use CGI::FormBuilder;
2593 my $form = CGI::FormBuilder->new(...);
2594 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new;
2596 if ($form->submitted) {
2597 my $field = $form->field;
2598 my $id = delete $field->{id};
2599 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->update('table', $field, {id => $id});
2602 Of course, you would still have to connect using C<DBI> to run the
2603 query, but the point is that if you make your form look like your
2604 table, the actual query script can be extremely simplistic.
2606 If you're B<REALLY> lazy (I am), check out C<HTML::QuickTable> for
2607 a fast interface to returning and formatting data. I frequently
2608 use these three modules together to write complex database query
2609 apps in under 50 lines.
2614 Version 1.50 was a major internal refactoring of C<SQL::Abstract>.
2615 Great care has been taken to preserve the I<published> behavior
2616 documented in previous versions in the 1.* family; however,
2617 some features that were previously undocumented, or behaved
2618 differently from the documentation, had to be changed in order
2619 to clarify the semantics. Hence, client code that was relying
2620 on some dark areas of C<SQL::Abstract> v1.*
2621 B<might behave differently> in v1.50.
2623 The main changes are :
2629 support for literal SQL through the C<< \ [$sql, bind] >> syntax.
2633 support for the { operator => \"..." } construct (to embed literal SQL)
2637 support for the { operator => \["...", @bind] } construct (to embed literal SQL with bind values)
2641 optional support for L<array datatypes|/"Inserting and Updating Arrays">
2645 defensive programming : check arguments
2649 fixed bug with global logic, which was previously implemented
2650 through global variables yielding side-effects. Prior versions would
2651 interpret C<< [ {cond1, cond2}, [cond3, cond4] ] >>
2652 as C<< "(cond1 AND cond2) OR (cond3 AND cond4)" >>.
2653 Now this is interpreted
2654 as C<< "(cond1 AND cond2) OR (cond3 OR cond4)" >>.
2659 fixed semantics of _bindtype on array args
2663 dropped the C<_anoncopy> of the %where tree. No longer necessary,
2664 we just avoid shifting arrays within that tree.
2668 dropped the C<_modlogic> function
2674 =head1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
2676 There are a number of individuals that have really helped out with
2677 this module. Unfortunately, most of them submitted bugs via CPAN
2678 so I have no idea who they are! But the people I do know are:
2680 Ash Berlin (order_by hash term support)
2681 Matt Trout (DBIx::Class support)
2682 Mark Stosberg (benchmarking)
2683 Chas Owens (initial "IN" operator support)
2684 Philip Collins (per-field SQL functions)
2685 Eric Kolve (hashref "AND" support)
2686 Mike Fragassi (enhancements to "BETWEEN" and "LIKE")
2687 Dan Kubb (support for "quote_char" and "name_sep")
2688 Guillermo Roditi (patch to cleanup "IN" and "BETWEEN", fix and tests for _order_by)
2689 Laurent Dami (internal refactoring, multiple -nest, extensible list of special operators, literal SQL)
2690 Norbert Buchmuller (support for literal SQL in hashpair, misc. fixes & tests)
2691 Peter Rabbitson (rewrite of SQLA::Test, misc. fixes & tests)
2692 Oliver Charles (support for "RETURNING" after "INSERT")
2698 L<DBIx::Class>, L<DBIx::Abstract>, L<CGI::FormBuilder>, L<HTML::QuickTable>.
2702 Copyright (c) 2001-2007 Nathan Wiger <nwiger@cpan.org>. All Rights Reserved.
2704 This module is actively maintained by Matt Trout <mst@shadowcatsystems.co.uk>
2706 For support, your best bet is to try the C<DBIx::Class> users mailing list.
2707 While not an official support venue, C<DBIx::Class> makes heavy use of
2708 C<SQL::Abstract>, and as such list members there are very familiar with
2709 how to create queries.
2713 This module is free software; you may copy this under the same
2714 terms as perl itself (either the GNU General Public License or
2715 the Artistic License)