was never a list to start with.
In general, functions in Perl that serve as wrappers for system calls
-of the same name (like chown(2), fork(2), closedir(2), etc.) all return
+of the same name (like C<chown(2)>, C<fork(2)>, C<closedir(2)>, etc.) all return
true when they succeed and C<undef> otherwise, as is usually mentioned
in the descriptions below. This is different from the C interfaces,
-which return -1 on failure. Exceptions to this rule are wait(),
-waitpid(), and syscall(). System calls also set the special C<$!>
+which return C<-1> on failure. Exceptions to this rule are C<wait()>,
+C<waitpid()>, and C<syscall()>. System calls also set the special C<$!>
variable on failure. Other functions do not, except accidentally.
=head2 Perl Functions by Category
A file test, where X is one of the letters listed below. This unary
operator takes one argument, either a filename or a filehandle, and
tests the associated file to see if something is true about it. If the
-argument is omitted, tests $_, except for C<-t>, which tests STDIN.
+argument is omitted, tests C<$_>, except for C<-t>, which tests STDIN.
Unless otherwise documented, it returns C<1> for TRUE and C<''> for FALSE, or
the undefined value if the file doesn't exist. Despite the funny
names, precedence is the same as any other named unary operator, and
C<-W>, C<-x>, and C<-X> is based solely on the mode of the file and the
uids and gids of the user. There may be other reasons you can't actually
read, write, or execute the file, such as AFS access control lists. Also note that, for the superuser,
-C<-r>, C<-R>, C<-w>, and C<-W> always return 1, and C<-x> and C<-X> return
-1 if any execute bit is set in the mode. Scripts run by the superuser may
-thus need to do a stat() to determine the actual mode of the
+C<-r>, C<-R>, C<-w>, and C<-W> always return C<1>, and C<-x> and C<-X> return
+C<1> if any execute bit is set in the mode. Scripts run by the superuser may
+thus need to do a C<stat()> to determine the actual mode of the
file, or temporarily set the uid to something else.
Example:
read a file to do the C<-T> test, on most occasions you want to use a C<-f>
against the file first, as in C<next unless -f $file && -T $file>.
-If any of the file tests (or either the stat() or lstat() operators) are given
+If any of the file tests (or either the C<stat()> or C<lstat()> operators) are given
the special filehandle consisting of a solitary underline, then the stat
structure of the previous file test (or stat operator) is used, saving
a system call. (This doesn't work with C<-t>, and you need to remember
=item abs
Returns the absolute value of its argument.
-If VALUE is omitted, uses $_.
+If VALUE is omitted, uses C<$_>.
=item accept NEWSOCKET,GENERICSOCKET
-Accepts an incoming socket connect, just as the accept(2) system call
+Accepts an incoming socket connect, just as the C<accept(2)> system call
does. Returns the packed address if it succeeded, FALSE otherwise.
See example in L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">.
Arranges to have a SIGALRM delivered to this process after the
specified number of seconds have elapsed. If SECONDS is not specified,
-the value stored in $_ is used. (On some machines,
+the value stored in C<$_> is used. (On some machines,
unfortunately, the elapsed time may be up to one second less than you
specified because of how seconds are counted.) Only one timer may be
counting at once. Each call disables the previous timer, and an
-argument of 0 may be supplied to cancel the previous timer without
+argument of C<0> may be supplied to cancel the previous timer without
starting a new one. The returned value is the amount of time remaining
on the previous timer.
For delays of finer granularity than one second, you may use Perl's
-syscall() interface to access setitimer(2) if your system supports it,
-or else see L</select()>. It is usually a mistake to intermix alarm()
-and sleep() calls.
+C<syscall()> interface to access C<setitimer(2)> if your system supports it,
+or else see L</select()>. It is usually a mistake to intermix C<alarm()>
+and C<sleep()> calls.
-If you want to use alarm() to time out a system call you need to use an
-eval/die pair. You can't rely on the alarm causing the system call to
+If you want to use C<alarm()> to time out a system call you need to use an
+C<eval>/C<die> pair. You can't rely on the alarm causing the system call to
fail with C<$!> set to EINTR because Perl sets up signal handlers to
-restart system calls on some systems. Using eval/die always works,
+restart system calls on some systems. Using C<eval>/C<die> always works,
modulo the caveats given in L<perlipc/"Signals">.
eval {
Returns the arctangent of Y/X in the range -PI to PI.
-For the tangent operation, you may use the POSIX::tan()
+For the tangent operation, you may use the C<POSIX::tan()>
function, or use the familiar relation:
sub tan { sin($_[0]) / cos($_[0]) }
translated to CR LF on output. Binmode has no effect under Unix; in MS-DOS
and similarly archaic systems, it may be imperative--otherwise your
MS-DOS-damaged C library may mangle your file. The key distinction between
-systems that need binmode and those that don't is their text file
+systems that need C<binmode> and those that don't is their text file
formats. Systems like Unix, MacOS, and Plan9 that delimit lines with a single
-character, and that encode that character in C as '\n', do not need
+character, and that encode that character in C as C<"\n">, do not need
C<binmode>. The rest need it. If FILEHANDLE is an expression, the value
is taken as the name of the filehandle.
This function tells the thingy referenced by REF that it is now
an object in the CLASSNAME package--or the current package if no CLASSNAME
is specified, which is often the case. It returns the reference for
-convenience, because a bless() is often the last thing in a constructor.
+convenience, because a C<bless()> is often the last thing in a constructor.
Always use the two-argument version if the function doing the blessing
might be inherited by a derived class. See L<perltoot> and L<perlobj>
for more about the blessing (and blessings) of objects.
Returns the context of the current subroutine call. In scalar context,
returns the caller's package name if there is a caller, that is, if
-we're in a subroutine or eval() or require(), and the undefined value
+we're in a subroutine or C<eval()> or C<require()>, and the undefined value
otherwise. In list context, returns
($package, $filename, $line) = caller;
($package, $filename, $line, $subroutine,
$hasargs, $wantarray, $evaltext, $is_require) = caller($i);
-Here $subroutine may be C<"(eval)"> if the frame is not a subroutine
-call, but an C<eval>. In such a case additional elements $evaltext and
-$is_require are set: $is_require is true if the frame is created by a
-C<require> or C<use> statement, $evaltext contains the text of the
+Here C<$subroutine> may be C<"(eval)"> if the frame is not a subroutine
+call, but an C<eval>. In such a case additional elements C<$evaltext> and
+C<$is_require> are set: C<$is_require> is true if the frame is created by a
+C<require> or C<use> statement, C<$evaltext> contains the text of the
C<eval EXPR> statement. In particular, for a C<eval BLOCK> statement,
-$filename is C<"(eval)">, but $evaltext is undefined. (Note also that
+C<$filename> is C<"(eval)">, but C<$evaltext> is undefined. (Note also that
each C<use> statement creates a C<require> frame inside an C<eval EXPR>)
frame.
Furthermore, when called from within the DB package, caller returns more
-detailed information: it sets the list variable @DB::args to be the
+detailed information: it sets the list variable C<@DB::args> to be the
arguments with which the subroutine was invoked.
+Be aware that the optimizer might have optimized call frames away before
+C<caller> had a chance to get the information. That means that C<caller(N)>
+might not return information about the call frame you expect it do, for
+C<N E<gt> 1>. In particular, C<@DB::args> might have information from the
+previous time C<caller()> was called.
+
=item chdir EXPR
Changes the working directory to EXPR, if possible. If EXPR is
omitted, changes to home directory. Returns TRUE upon success, FALSE
-otherwise. See example under die().
+otherwise. See example under C<die()>.
=item chmod LIST
remove the newline from the end of an input record when you're worried
that the final record may be missing its newline. When in paragraph mode
(C<$/ = "">), it removes all trailing newlines from the string. If
-VARIABLE is omitted, it chomps $_. Example:
+VARIABLE is omitted, it chomps C<$_>. Example:
while (<>) {
chomp; # avoid \n on last field
Chops off the last character of a string and returns the character
chopped. It's used primarily to remove the newline from the end of an
input record, but is much more efficient than C<s/\n//> because it neither
-scans nor copies the string. If VARIABLE is omitted, chops $_.
+scans nor copies the string. If VARIABLE is omitted, chops C<$_>.
Example:
while (<>) {
chop($answer = <STDIN>);
If you chop a list, each element is chopped. Only the value of the
-last chop is returned.
+last C<chop> is returned.
-Note that chop returns the last character. To return all but the last
+Note that C<chop> returns the last character. To return all but the last
character, use C<substr($string, 0, -1)>.
=item chown LIST
=item chr
Returns the character represented by that NUMBER in the character set.
-For example, C<chr(65)> is "A" in ASCII. For the reverse, use L</ord>.
+For example, C<chr(65)> is C<"A"> in ASCII. For the reverse, use L</ord>.
-If NUMBER is omitted, uses $_.
+If NUMBER is omitted, uses C<$_>.
=item chroot FILENAME
This function works like the system call by the same name: it makes the
named directory the new root directory for all further pathnames that
-begin with a "/" by your process and all its children. (It doesn't
+begin with a C<"/"> by your process and all its children. (It doesn't
change your current working directory, which is unaffected.) For security
reasons, this call is restricted to the superuser. If FILENAME is
-omitted, does a chroot to $_.
+omitted, does a C<chroot> to C<$_>.
=item close FILEHANDLE
is omitted.
You don't have to close FILEHANDLE if you are immediately going to do
-another open() on it, because open() will close it for you. (See
-open().) However, an explicit close on an input file resets the line
-counter ($.), while the implicit close done by open() does not.
+another C<open()> on it, because C<open()> will close it for you. (See
+C<open()>.) However, an explicit C<close> on an input file resets the line
+counter (C<$.>), while the implicit close done by C<open()> does not.
If the file handle came from a piped open C<close> will additionally
return FALSE if one of the other system calls involved fails or if the
program exits with non-zero status. (If the only problem was that the
-program exited non-zero $! will be set to 0.) Also, closing a pipe
+program exited non-zero C<$!> will be set to C<0>.) Also, closing a pipe
waits for the process executing on the pipe to complete, in case you
want to look at the output of the pipe afterwards. Closing a pipe
explicitly also puts the exit status value of the command into C<$?>.
=item closedir DIRHANDLE
-Closes a directory opened by opendir() and returns the success of that
+Closes a directory opened by C<opendir()> and returns the success of that
system call.
DIRHANDLE may be an expression whose value can be used as an indirect
=item cos EXPR
Returns the cosine of EXPR (expressed in radians). If EXPR is omitted,
-takes cosine of $_.
+takes cosine of C<$_>.
-For the inverse cosine operation, you may use the POSIX::acos()
+For the inverse cosine operation, you may use the C<POSIX::acos()>
function, or use this relation:
sub acos { atan2( sqrt(1 - $_[0] * $_[0]), $_[0] ) }
=item crypt PLAINTEXT,SALT
-Encrypts a string exactly like the crypt(3) function in the C library
+Encrypts a string exactly like the C<crypt(3)> function in the C library
(assuming that you actually have a version there that has not been
extirpated as a potential munition). This can prove useful for checking
the password file for lousy passwords, amongst other things. Only the
guys wearing white hats should do this.
-Note that crypt is intended to be a one-way function, much like breaking
+Note that C<crypt()> is intended to be a one-way function, much like breaking
eggs to make an omelette. There is no (known) corresponding decrypt
function. As a result, this function isn't all that useful for
cryptography. (For that, see your nearby CPAN mirror.)
=item dbmclose HASH
-[This function has been superseded by the untie() function.]
+[This function has been superseded by the C<untie()> function.]
Breaks the binding between a DBM file and a hash.
=item dbmopen HASH,DBNAME,MODE
-[This function has been superseded by the tie() function.]
+[This function has been superseded by the C<tie()> function.]
This binds a dbm(3), ndbm(3), sdbm(3), gdbm(3), or Berkeley DB file to a
-hash. HASH is the name of the hash. (Unlike normal open, the first
+hash. HASH is the name of the hash. (Unlike normal C<open>, the first
argument is I<NOT> a filehandle, even though it looks like one). DBNAME
is the name of the database (without the F<.dir> or F<.pag> extension if
any). If the database does not exist, it is created with protection
-specified by MODE (as modified by the umask()). If your system supports
-only the older DBM functions, you may perform only one dbmopen() in your
+specified by MODE (as modified by the C<umask()>). If your system supports
+only the older DBM functions, you may perform only one C<dbmopen()> in your
program. In older versions of Perl, if your system had neither DBM nor
-ndbm, calling dbmopen() produced a fatal error; it now falls back to
+ndbm, calling C<dbmopen()> produced a fatal error; it now falls back to
sdbm(3).
If you don't have write access to the DBM file, you can only read hash
variables, not set them. If you want to test whether you can write,
-either use file tests or try setting a dummy hash entry inside an eval(),
+either use file tests or try setting a dummy hash entry inside an C<eval()>,
which will trap the error.
-Note that functions such as keys() and values() may return huge lists
-when used on large DBM files. You may prefer to use the each()
+Note that functions such as C<keys()> and C<values()> may return huge lists
+when used on large DBM files. You may prefer to use the C<each()>
function to iterate over large DBM files. Example:
# print out history file offsets
system error, uninitialized variable, and other exceptional
conditions. This function allows you to distinguish C<undef> from
other values. (A simple Boolean test will not distinguish among
-C<undef>, zero, the empty string, and "0", which are all equally
+C<undef>, zero, the empty string, and C<"0">, which are all equally
false.) Note that since C<undef> is a valid scalar, its presence
-doesn't I<necessarily> indicate an exceptional condition: pop()
+doesn't I<necessarily> indicate an exceptional condition: C<pop()>
returns C<undef> when its argument is an empty array, I<or> when the
element to return happens to be C<undef>.
-You may also use defined() to check whether a subroutine exists, by
+You may also use C<defined()> to check whether a subroutine exists, by
saying C<defined &func> without parentheses. On the other hand, use
-of defined() upon aggregates (hashes and arrays) is not guaranteed to
+of C<defined()> upon aggregates (hashes and arrays) is not guaranteed to
produce intuitive results, and should probably be avoided.
When used on a hash element, it tells you whether the value is defined,
sub foo { defined &$bar ? &$bar(@_) : die "No bar"; }
$debugging = 0 unless defined $debugging;
-Note: Many folks tend to overuse defined(), and then are surprised to
-discover that the number 0 and "" (the zero-length string) are, in fact,
+Note: Many folks tend to overuse C<defined()>, and then are surprised to
+discover that the number C<0> and C<""> (the zero-length string) are, in fact,
defined values. For example, if you say
"ab" =~ /a(.*)b/;
-The pattern match succeeds, and $1 is defined, despite the fact that it
+The pattern match succeeds, and C<$1> is defined, despite the fact that it
matched "nothing". But it didn't really match nothing--rather, it
-matched something that happened to be 0 characters long. This is all
+matched something that happened to be C<0> characters long. This is all
very above-board and honest. When a function returns an undefined value,
it's an admission that it couldn't give you an honest answer. So you
-should use defined() only when you're questioning the integrity of what
-you're trying to do. At other times, a simple comparison to 0 or "" is
+should use C<defined()> only when you're questioning the integrity of what
+you're trying to do. At other times, a simple comparison to C<0> or C<""> is
what you want.
-Currently, using defined() on an entire array or hash reports whether
+Currently, using C<defined()> on an entire array or hash reports whether
memory for that aggregate has ever been allocated. So an array you set
to the empty list appears undefined initially, and one that once was full
and that you then set to the empty list still appears defined. You
if (@an_array) { print "has array elements\n" }
if (%a_hash) { print "has hash members\n" }
-Using undef() on these, however, does clear their memory and then report
+Using C<undef()> on these, however, does clear their memory and then report
them as not defined anymore, but you shouldn't do that unless you don't
plan to use them again, because it saves time when you load them up
again to have memory already ready to be filled. The normal way to
free up space used by an aggregate is to assign the empty list.
-This counterintuitive behavior of defined() on aggregates may be
+This counterintuitive behavior of C<defined()> on aggregates may be
changed, fixed, or broken in a future release of Perl.
See also L</undef>, L</exists>, L</ref>.
For each key, returns the deleted value associated with that key, or
the undefined value if there was no such key. Deleting from C<$ENV{}>
modifies the environment. Deleting from a hash tied to a DBM file
-deletes the entry from the DBM file. (But deleting from a tie()d hash
+deletes the entry from the DBM file. (But deleting from a C<tie()>d hash
doesn't necessarily return anything.)
The following deletes all the values of a hash:
delete @HASH{keys %HASH}
(But both of these are slower than just assigning the empty list, or
-using undef().) Note that the EXPR can be arbitrarily complicated as
+using C<undef()>.) Note that the EXPR can be arbitrarily complicated as
long as the final operation is a hash element lookup or hash slice:
delete $ref->[$x][$y]{$key};
=item die LIST
-Outside an eval(), prints the value of LIST to C<STDERR> and exits with
-the current value of C<$!> (errno). If C<$!> is 0, exits with the value of
+Outside an C<eval()>, prints the value of LIST to C<STDERR> and exits with
+the current value of C<$!> (errno). If C<$!> is C<0>, exits with the value of
C<($? E<gt>E<gt> 8)> (backtick `command` status). If C<($? E<gt>E<gt> 8)>
-is 0, exits with 255. Inside an eval(), the error message is stuffed into
-C<$@> and the eval() is terminated with the undefined value. This makes
-die() the way to raise an exception.
+is C<0>, exits with C<255>. Inside an C<eval(),> the error message is stuffed into
+C<$@> and the C<eval()> is terminated with the undefined value. This makes
+C<die()> the way to raise an exception.
Equivalent examples:
If the value of EXPR does not end in a newline, the current script line
number and input line number (if any) are also printed, and a newline
-is supplied. Hint: sometimes appending ", stopped" to your message
-will cause it to make better sense when the string "at foo line 123" is
+is supplied. Hint: sometimes appending C<", stopped"> to your message
+will cause it to make better sense when the string C<"at foo line 123"> is
appended. Suppose you are running script "canasta".
die "/etc/games is no good";
/etc/games is no good at canasta line 123.
/etc/games is no good, stopped at canasta line 123.
-See also exit() and warn().
+See also C<exit()> and C<warn()>.
-If LIST is empty and $@ already contains a value (typically from a
-previous eval) that value is reused after appending "\t...propagated".
+If LIST is empty and C<$@> already contains a value (typically from a
+previous eval) that value is reused after appending C<"\t...propagated">.
This is useful for propagating exceptions:
eval { ... };
die unless $@ =~ /Expected exception/;
-If $@ is empty then the string "Died" is used.
+If C<$@> is empty then the string C<"Died"> is used.
-You can arrange for a callback to be run just before the die() does
+You can arrange for a callback to be run just before the C<die()> does
its deed, by setting the C<$SIG{__DIE__}> hook. The associated handler
will be called with the error text and can change the error message, if
-it sees fit, by calling die() again. See L<perlvar/$SIG{expr}> for details on
+it sees fit, by calling C<die()> again. See L<perlvar/$SIG{expr}> for details on
setting C<%SIG> entries, and L<"eval BLOCK"> for some examples.
Note that the C<$SIG{__DIE__}> hook is called even inside eval()ed
do this inside a loop.
Note that inclusion of library modules is better done with the
-use() and require() operators, which also do automatic error checking
+C<use()> and C<require()> operators, which also do automatic error checking
and raise an exception if there's a problem.
You might like to use C<do> to read in a program configuration
When called in list context, returns a 2-element list consisting of the
key and value for the next element of a hash, so that you can iterate over
it. When called in scalar context, returns the key for only the "next"
-element in the hash. (Note: Keys may be "0" or "", which are logically
+element in the hash. (Note: Keys may be C<"0"> or C<"">, which are logically
false; you may wish to avoid constructs like C<while ($k = each %foo) {}>
for this reason.)
Entries are returned in an apparently random order. When the hash is
entirely read, a null array is returned in list context (which when
-assigned produces a FALSE (0) value), and C<undef> in
-scalar context. The next call to each() after that will start iterating
-again. There is a single iterator for each hash, shared by all each(),
-keys(), and values() function calls in the program; it can be reset by
+assigned produces a FALSE (C<0>) value), and C<undef> in
+scalar context. The next call to C<each()> after that will start iterating
+again. There is a single iterator for each hash, shared by all C<each()>,
+C<keys()>, and C<values()> function calls in the program; it can be reset by
reading all the elements from the hash, or by evaluating C<keys HASH> or
C<values HASH>. If you add or delete elements of a hash while you're
iterating over it, you may get entries skipped or duplicated, so don't.
-The following prints out your environment like the printenv(1) program,
+The following prints out your environment like the C<printenv(1)> program,
only in a different order:
while (($key,$value) = each %ENV) {
print "$key=$value\n";
}
-See also keys() and values().
+See also C<keys()> and C<values()>.
=item eof FILEHANDLE
Returns 1 if the next read on FILEHANDLE will return end of file, or if
FILEHANDLE is not open. FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value
gives the real filehandle. (Note that this function actually
-reads a character and then ungetc()s it, so isn't very useful in an
+reads a character and then C<ungetc()>s it, so isn't very useful in an
interactive context.) Do not read from a terminal file (or call
C<eof(FILEHANDLE)> on it) after end-of-file is reached. Filetypes such
as terminals may lose the end-of-file condition if you do.
in void, scalar, or list context, depending on the context of the eval itself.
See L</wantarray> for more on how the evaluation context can be determined.
-If there is a syntax error or runtime error, or a die() statement is
-executed, an undefined value is returned by eval(), and C<$@> is set to the
+If there is a syntax error or runtime error, or a C<die()> statement is
+executed, an undefined value is returned by C<eval()>, and C<$@> is set to the
error message. If there was no error, C<$@> is guaranteed to be a null
-string. Beware that using eval() neither silences perl from printing
+string. Beware that using C<eval()> neither silences perl from printing
warnings to STDERR, nor does it stuff the text of warning messages into C<$@>.
To do either of those, you have to use the C<$SIG{__WARN__}> facility. See
L</warn> and L<perlvar>.
-Note that, because eval() traps otherwise-fatal errors, it is useful for
-determining whether a particular feature (such as socket() or symlink())
+Note that, because C<eval()> traps otherwise-fatal errors, it is useful for
+determining whether a particular feature (such as C<socket()> or C<symlink()>)
is implemented. It is also Perl's exception trapping mechanism, where
the die operator is used to raise exceptions.
# a run-time error
eval '$answer ='; # sets $@
-When using the eval{} form as an exception trap in libraries, you may
+When using the C<eval{}> form as an exception trap in libraries, you may
wish not to trigger any C<__DIE__> hooks that user code may have
installed. You can use the C<local $SIG{__DIE__}> construct for this
purpose, as shown in this example:
eval { local $SIG{'__DIE__'}; $answer = $a / $b; }; warn $@ if $@;
This is especially significant, given that C<__DIE__> hooks can call
-die() again, which has the effect of changing their error messages:
+C<die()> again, which has the effect of changing their error messages:
# __DIE__ hooks may modify error messages
{
print $@ if $@; # prints "bar lives here"
}
-With an eval(), you should be especially careful to remember what's
+With an C<eval()>, you should be especially careful to remember what's
being looked at when:
eval $x; # CASE 1
$$x++; # CASE 6
Cases 1 and 2 above behave identically: they run the code contained in
-the variable $x. (Although case 2 has misleading double quotes making
+the variable C<$x>. (Although case 2 has misleading double quotes making
the reader wonder what else might be happening (nothing is).) Cases 3
-and 4 likewise behave in the same way: they run the code '$x', which
+and 4 likewise behave in the same way: they run the code C<'$x'>, which
does nothing but return the value of C<$x>. (Case 4 is preferred for
purely visual reasons, but it also has the advantage of compiling at
compile-time instead of at run-time.) Case 5 is a place where
=item exec PROGRAM LIST
-The exec() function executes a system command I<AND NEVER RETURNS> -
-use system() instead of exec() if you want it to return. It fails and
+The C<exec()> function executes a system command I<AND NEVER RETURNS> -
+use C<system()> instead of C<exec()> if you want it to return. It fails and
returns FALSE only if the command does not exist I<and> it is executed
directly instead of via your system's command shell (see below).
-Since it's a common mistake to use system() instead of exec(), Perl
-warns you if there is a following statement which isn't die(), warn(),
-or exit() (if C<-w> is set - but you always do that). If you
-I<really> want to follow an exec() with some other statement, you
+Since it's a common mistake to use C<exec()> instead of C<system()>, Perl
+warns you if there is a following statement which isn't C<die()>, C<warn()>,
+or C<exit()> (if C<-w> is set - but you always do that). If you
+I<really> want to follow an C<exec()> with some other statement, you
can use one of these styles to avoid the warning:
exec ('foo') or print STDERR "couldn't exec foo: $!";
{ exec ('foo') }; print STDERR "couldn't exec foo: $!";
If there is more than one argument in LIST, or if LIST is an array
-with more than one value, calls execvp(3) with the arguments in LIST.
+with more than one value, calls C<execvp(3)> with the arguments in LIST.
If there is only one scalar argument or an array with one element in it,
the argument is checked for shell metacharacters, and if there are any,
the entire argument is passed to the system's command shell for parsing
(this is C</bin/sh -c> on Unix platforms, but varies on other platforms).
If there are no shell metacharacters in the argument, it is split into
-words and passed directly to execvp(), which is more efficient. Note:
-exec() and system() do not flush your output buffer, so you may need to
+words and passed directly to C<execvp()>, which is more efficient. Note:
+C<exec()> and C<system()> do not flush your output buffer, so you may need to
set C<$|> to avoid lost output. Examples:
exec '/bin/echo', 'Your arguments are: ', @ARGV;
didn't--it tried to run a program literally called I<"echo surprise">,
didn't find it, and set C<$?> to a non-zero value indicating failure.
+Note that C<exec> will not call your C<END> blocks, nor will it call
+any C<DESTROY> methods in your objects.
+
=item exists EXPR
Returns TRUE if the specified hash key exists in its hash array, even
$ans = <STDIN>;
exit 0 if $ans =~ /^[Xx]/;
-See also die(). If EXPR is omitted, exits with 0 status. The only
-universally portable values for EXPR are 0 for success and 1 for error;
+See also C<die()>. If EXPR is omitted, exits with C<0> status. The only
+universally portable values for EXPR are C<0> for success and C<1> for error;
all other values are subject to unpredictable interpretation depending
on the environment in which the Perl program is running.
-You shouldn't use exit() to abort a subroutine if there's any chance that
-someone might want to trap whatever error happened. Use die() instead,
-which can be trapped by an eval().
+You shouldn't use C<exit()> to abort a subroutine if there's any chance that
+someone might want to trap whatever error happened. Use C<die()> instead,
+which can be trapped by an C<eval()>.
All C<END{}> blocks are run at exit time. See L<perlsub> for details.
=item fcntl FILEHANDLE,FUNCTION,SCALAR
-Implements the fcntl(2) function. You'll probably have to say
+Implements the C<fcntl(2)> function. You'll probably have to say
use Fcntl;
first to get the correct constant definitions. Argument processing and
-value return works just like ioctl() below.
+value return works just like C<ioctl()> below.
For example:
use Fcntl;
or die "can't fcntl F_GETFL: $!";
You don't have to check for C<defined> on the return from
-fnctl. Like ioctl, it maps a 0 return from the system
-call into "0 but true" in Perl. This string is true in
-boolean context and 0 in numeric context. It is also
+C<fnctl>. Like C<ioctl>, it maps a C<0> return from the system
+call into "C<0> but true" in Perl. This string is true in
+boolean context and C<0> in numeric context. It is also
exempt from the normal B<-w> warnings on improper numeric
conversions.
-Note that fcntl() will produce a fatal error if used on a machine that
-doesn't implement fcntl(2).
+Note that C<fcntl()> will produce a fatal error if used on a machine that
+doesn't implement C<fcntl(2)>.
=item fileno FILEHANDLE
Returns the file descriptor for a filehandle. This is useful for
-constructing bitmaps for select() and low-level POSIX tty-handling
+constructing bitmaps for C<select()> and low-level POSIX tty-handling
operations. If FILEHANDLE is an expression, the value is taken as
an indirect filehandle, generally its name.
=item flock FILEHANDLE,OPERATION
-Calls flock(2), or an emulation of it, on FILEHANDLE. Returns TRUE for
+Calls C<flock(2)>, or an emulation of it, on FILEHANDLE. Returns TRUE for
success, FALSE on failure. Produces a fatal error if used on a machine
-that doesn't implement flock(2), fcntl(2) locking, or lockf(3). flock()
+that doesn't implement C<flock(2)>, C<fcntl(2)> locking, or C<lockf(3)>. C<flock()>
is Perl's portable file locking interface, although it locks only entire
files, not records.
On many platforms (including most versions or clones of Unix), locks
-established by flock() are B<merely advisory>. Such discretionary locks
+established by C<flock()> are B<merely advisory>. Such discretionary locks
are more flexible, but offer fewer guarantees. This means that files
-locked with flock() may be modified by programs that do not also use
-flock(). Windows NT and OS/2 are among the platforms which
+locked with C<flock()> may be modified by programs that do not also use
+C<flock()>. Windows NT and OS/2 are among the platforms which
enforce mandatory locking. See your local documentation for details.
OPERATION is one of LOCK_SH, LOCK_EX, or LOCK_UN, possibly combined with
either individually, or as a group using the ':flock' tag. LOCK_SH
requests a shared lock, LOCK_EX requests an exclusive lock, and LOCK_UN
releases a previously requested lock. If LOCK_NB is added to LOCK_SH or
-LOCK_EX then flock() will return immediately rather than blocking
+LOCK_EX then C<flock()> will return immediately rather than blocking
waiting for the lock (check the return status to see if you got it).
To avoid the possibility of mis-coordination, Perl flushes FILEHANDLE
before (un)locking it.
-Note that the emulation built with lockf(3) doesn't provide shared
+Note that the emulation built with C<lockf(3)> doesn't provide shared
locks, and it requires that FILEHANDLE be open with write intent. These
-are the semantics that lockf(3) implements. Most (all?) systems
-implement lockf(3) in terms of fcntl(2) locking, though, so the
+are the semantics that C<lockf(3)> implements. Most (all?) systems
+implement C<lockf(3)> in terms of C<fcntl(2)> locking, though, so the
differing semantics shouldn't bite too many people.
-Note also that some versions of flock() cannot lock things over the
-network; you would need to use the more system-specific fcntl() for
-that. If you like you can force Perl to ignore your system's flock(2)
-function, and so provide its own fcntl(2)-based emulation, by passing
+Note also that some versions of C<flock()> cannot lock things over the
+network; you would need to use the more system-specific C<fcntl()> for
+that. If you like you can force Perl to ignore your system's C<flock(2)>
+function, and so provide its own C<fcntl(2)>-based emulation, by passing
the switch C<-Ud_flock> to the F<Configure> program when you configure
perl.
=item fork
-Does a fork(2) system call. Returns the child pid to the parent process,
-0 to the child process, or C<undef> if the fork is unsuccessful.
+Does a C<fork(2)> system call. Returns the child pid to the parent process,
+C<0> to the child process, or C<undef> if the fork is unsuccessful.
Note: unflushed buffers remain unflushed in both processes, which means
-you may need to set C<$|> ($AUTOFLUSH in English) or call the autoflush()
-method of IO::Handle to avoid duplicate output.
+you may need to set C<$|> ($AUTOFLUSH in English) or call the C<autoflush()>
+method of C<IO::Handle> to avoid duplicate output.
-If you fork() without ever waiting on your children, you will accumulate
+If you C<fork()> without ever waiting on your children, you will accumulate
zombies:
$SIG{CHLD} = sub { wait };
There's also the double-fork trick (error checking on
-fork() returns omitted);
+C<fork()> returns omitted);
unless ($pid = fork) {
unless (fork) {
Note that if your forked child inherits system file descriptors like
STDIN and STDOUT that are actually connected by a pipe or socket, even
if you exit, then the remote server (such as, say, httpd or rsh) won't think
-you're done. You should reopen those to /dev/null if it's any issue.
+you're done. You should reopen those to F</dev/null> if it's any issue.
=item format
-Declare a picture format for use by the write() function. For
+Declare a picture format for use by the C<write()> function. For
example:
format Something =
This is an internal function used by C<format>s, though you may call it,
too. It formats (see L<perlform>) a list of values according to the
contents of PICTURE, placing the output into the format output
-accumulator, C<$^A> (or $ACCUMULATOR in English).
-Eventually, when a write() is done, the contents of
+accumulator, C<$^A> (or C<$ACCUMULATOR> in English).
+Eventually, when a C<write()> is done, the contents of
C<$^A> are written to some filehandle, but you could also read C<$^A>
-yourself and then set C<$^A> back to "". Note that a format typically
-does one formline() per line of form, but the formline() function itself
+yourself and then set C<$^A> back to C<"">. Note that a format typically
+does one C<formline()> per line of form, but the C<formline()> function itself
doesn't care how many newlines are embedded in the PICTURE. This means
that the C<~> and C<~~> tokens will treat the entire PICTURE as a single line.
You may therefore need to use multiple formlines to implement a single
Be careful if you put double quotes around the picture, because an "C<@>"
character may be taken to mean the beginning of an array name.
-formline() always returns TRUE. See L<perlform> for other examples.
+C<formline()> always returns TRUE. See L<perlform> for other examples.
=item getc FILEHANDLE
Determination of whether $BSD_STYLE should be set
is left as an exercise to the reader.
-The POSIX::getattr() function can do this more portably on systems
+The C<POSIX::getattr()> function can do this more portably on systems
purporting POSIX compliance.
See also the C<Term::ReadKey> module from your nearest CPAN site;
details on CPAN can be found on L<perlmod/CPAN>.
Implements the C library function of the same name, which on most
systems returns the current login from F</etc/utmp>, if any. If null,
-use getpwuid().
+use C<getpwuid()>.
$login = getlogin || getpwuid($<) || "Kilroy";
-Do not consider getlogin() for authentication: it is not as
-secure as getpwuid().
+Do not consider C<getlogin()> for authentication: it is not as
+secure as C<getpwuid()>.
=item getpeername SOCKET
=item getpgrp PID
Returns the current process group for the specified PID. Use
-a PID of 0 to get the current process group for the
+a PID of C<0> to get the current process group for the
current process. Will raise an exception if used on a machine that
-doesn't implement getpgrp(2). If PID is omitted, returns process
-group of current process. Note that the POSIX version of getpgrp()
-does not accept a PID argument, so only PID==0 is truly portable.
+doesn't implement C<getpgrp(2)>. If PID is omitted, returns process
+group of current process. Note that the POSIX version of C<getpgrp()>
+does not accept a PID argument, so only C<PID==0> is truly portable.
=item getppid
Returns the current priority for a process, a process group, or a user.
(See L<getpriority(2)>.) Will raise a fatal exception if used on a
-machine that doesn't implement getpriority(2).
+machine that doesn't implement C<getpriority(2)>.
=item getpwnam NAME
$name = getgrent();
#etc.
-In I<getpw*()> the fields $quota, $comment, and $expire are special
+In I<getpw*()> the fields C<$quota>, C<$comment>, and C<$expire> are special
cases in the sense that in many systems they are unsupported. If the
-$quota is unsupported, it is an empty scalar. If it is supported, it
-usually encodes the disk quota. If the $comment field is unsupported,
+C<$quota> is unsupported, it is an empty scalar. If it is supported, it
+usually encodes the disk quota. If the C<$comment> field is unsupported,
it is an empty scalar. If it is supported it usually encodes some
administrative comment about the user. In some systems the $quota
-field may be $change or $age, fields that have to do with password
-aging. In some systems the $comment field may be $class. The $expire
+field may be C<$change> or C<$age>, fields that have to do with password
+aging. In some systems the C<$comment> field may be C<$class>. The C<$expire>
field, if present, encodes the expiration period of the account or the
password. For the availability and the exact meaning of these fields
-in your system, please consult your getpwnam(3) documentation and your
-<pwd.h> file. You can also find out from within Perl which meaning
-your $quota and $comment fields have and whether you have the $expire
-field by using the Config module and the values d_pwquota, d_pwage,
-d_pwchange, d_pwcomment, and d_pwexpire.
+in your system, please consult your C<getpwnam(3)> documentation and your
+F<pwd.h> file. You can also find out from within Perl which meaning
+your C<$quota> and C<$comment> fields have and whether you have the C<$expire>
+field by using the C<Config> module and the values C<d_pwquota>, C<d_pwage>,
+C<d_pwchange>, C<d_pwcomment>, and C<d_pwexpire>.
-The $members value returned by I<getgr*()> is a space separated list of
+The C<$members> value returned by I<getgr*()> is a space separated list of
the login names of the members of the group.
For the I<gethost*()> functions, if the C<h_errno> variable is supported in
C, it will be returned to you via C<$?> if the function call fails. The
-@addrs value returned by a successful call is a list of the raw
+C<@addrs> value returned by a successful call is a list of the raw
addresses returned by the corresponding system library call. In the
Internet domain, each address is four bytes long and you can unpack it
by saying something like:
If you get tired of remembering which element of the return list contains
which return value, by-name interfaces are also provided in modules:
-File::stat, Net::hostent, Net::netent, Net::protoent, Net::servent,
-Time::gmtime, Time::localtime, and User::grent. These override the
+C<File::stat>, C<Net::hostent>, C<Net::netent>, C<Net::protoent>, C<Net::servent>,
+C<Time::gmtime>, C<Time::localtime>, and C<User::grent>. These override the
normal built-in, replacing them with versions that return objects with
the appropriate names for each field. For example:
$is_his = (stat($filename)->uid == pwent($whoever)->uid);
Even though it looks like they're the same method calls (uid),
-they aren't, because a File::stat object is different from a User::pwent object.
+they aren't, because a C<File::stat> object is different from a C<User::pwent> object.
=item getsockname SOCKET
=item glob
-Returns the value of EXPR with filename expansions such as the standard Unix shell /bin/sh would
+Returns the value of EXPR with filename expansions such as the standard Unix shell F</bin/sh> would
do. This is the internal function implementing the C<E<lt>*.cE<gt>>
-operator, but you can use it directly. If EXPR is omitted, $_ is used.
+operator, but you can use it directly. If EXPR is omitted, C<$_> is used.
The C<E<lt>*.cE<gt>> operator is discussed in more detail in
L<perlop/"I/O Operators">.
gmtime(time);
All array elements are numeric, and come straight out of a struct tm.
-In particular this means that $mon has the range 0..11 and $wday has
-the range 0..6 with sunday as day 0. Also, $year is the number of
-years since 1900, I<not> simply the last two digits of the year.
+In particular this means that C<$mon> has the range C<0..11> and C<$wday> has
+the range C<0..6> with sunday as day C<0>. Also, C<$year> is the number of
+years since 1900, that is, C<$year> is C<123> in year 2023, I<not> simply the last two digits of the year.
If EXPR is omitted, does C<gmtime(time())>.
-In scalar context, returns the ctime(3) value:
+In scalar context, returns the C<ctime(3)> value:
$now_string = gmtime; # e.g., "Thu Oct 13 04:54:34 1994"
-Also see the timegm() function provided by the Time::Local module,
-and the strftime(3) function available via the POSIX module.
+Also see the C<timegm()> function provided by the C<Time::Local> module,
+and the C<strftime(3)> function available via the POSIX module.
+
+This scalar value is B<not> locale dependent, see L<perllocale>, but
+instead a Perl builtin. Also see the C<Time::Local> module, and the
+C<strftime(3)> and C<mktime(3)> function available via the POSIX module. To
+get somewhat similar but locale dependent date strings, set up your
+locale environment variables appropriately (please see L<perllocale>)
+and try for example:
+
+ use POSIX qw(strftime);
+ $now_string = strftime "%a %b %e %H:%M:%S %Y", gmtime;
+
+Note that the C<%a> and C<%b>, the short forms of the day of the week
+and the month of the year, may not necessarily be three characters wide.
=item goto LABEL
=item goto &NAME
-The goto-LABEL form finds the statement labeled with LABEL and resumes
+The C<goto-LABEL> form finds the statement labeled with LABEL and resumes
execution there. It may not be used to go into any construct that
-requires initialization, such as a subroutine or a foreach loop. It
+requires initialization, such as a subroutine or a C<foreach> loop. It
also can't be used to go into a construct that is optimized away,
-or to get out of a block or subroutine given to sort().
+or to get out of a block or subroutine given to C<sort()>.
It can be used to go almost anywhere else within the dynamic scope,
including out of subroutines, but it's usually better to use some other
-construct such as last or die. The author of Perl has never felt the
-need to use this form of goto (in Perl, that is--C is another matter).
+construct such as C<last> or C<die>. The author of Perl has never felt the
+need to use this form of C<goto> (in Perl, that is--C is another matter).
-The goto-EXPR form expects a label name, whose scope will be resolved
-dynamically. This allows for computed gotos per FORTRAN, but isn't
+The C<goto-EXPR> form expects a label name, whose scope will be resolved
+dynamically. This allows for computed C<goto>s per FORTRAN, but isn't
necessarily recommended if you're optimizing for maintainability:
goto ("FOO", "BAR", "GLARCH")[$i];
-The goto-&NAME form is highly magical, and substitutes a call to the
+The C<goto-&NAME> form is highly magical, and substitutes a call to the
named subroutine for the currently running subroutine. This is used by
-AUTOLOAD subroutines that wish to load another subroutine and then
+C<AUTOLOAD> subroutines that wish to load another subroutine and then
pretend that the other subroutine had been called in the first place
-(except that any modifications to @_ in the current subroutine are
-propagated to the other subroutine.) After the goto, not even caller()
+(except that any modifications to C<@_> in the current subroutine are
+propagated to the other subroutine.) After the C<goto>, not even C<caller()>
will be able to tell that this routine was called first.
=item grep BLOCK LIST
=item grep EXPR,LIST
-This is similar in spirit to, but not the same as, grep(1)
+This is similar in spirit to, but not the same as, C<grep(1)>
and its relatives. In particular, it is not limited to using
regular expressions.
Evaluates the BLOCK or EXPR for each element of LIST (locally setting
-$_ to each element) and returns the list value consisting of those
+C<$_> to each element) and returns the list value consisting of those
elements for which the expression evaluated to TRUE. In a scalar
context, returns the number of times the expression was TRUE.
@foo = grep {!/^#/} @bar; # weed out comments
-Note that, because $_ is a reference into the list value, it can be used
+Note that, because C<$_> is a reference into the list value, it can be used
to modify the elements of the array. While this is useful and
supported, it can cause bizarre results if the LIST is not a named
array. Similarly, grep returns aliases into the original list,
Interprets EXPR as a hex string and returns the corresponding
value. (To convert strings that might start with either 0 or 0x
-see L</oct>.) If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
+see L</oct>.) If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
print hex '0xAf'; # prints '175'
print hex 'aF'; # same
=item import
-There is no builtin import() function. It is just an ordinary
+There is no builtin C<import()> function. It is just an ordinary
method (subroutine) defined (or inherited) by modules that wish to export
-names to another module. The use() function calls the import() method
+names to another module. The C<use()> function calls the C<import()> method
for the package used. See also L</use()>, L<perlmod>, and L<Exporter>.
=item index STR,SUBSTR,POSITION
Returns the position of the first occurrence of SUBSTR in STR at or after
POSITION. If POSITION is omitted, starts searching from the beginning of
-the string. The return value is based at 0 (or whatever you've set the C<$[>
+the string. The return value is based at C<0> (or whatever you've set the C<$[>
variable to--but don't do that). If the substring is not found, returns
-one less than the base, ordinarily -1.
+one less than the base, ordinarily C<-1>.
=item int EXPR
=item int
-Returns the integer portion of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
+Returns the integer portion of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
You should not use this for rounding, because it truncates
-towards 0, and because machine representations of floating point
-numbers can sometimes produce counterintuitive results. Usually sprintf() or printf(),
-or the POSIX::floor or POSIX::ceil functions, would serve you better.
+towards C<0>, and because machine representations of floating point
+numbers can sometimes produce counterintuitive results. Usually C<sprintf()> or C<printf()>,
+or the C<POSIX::floor> or C<POSIX::ceil> functions, would serve you better.
=item ioctl FILEHANDLE,FUNCTION,SCALAR
-Implements the ioctl(2) function. You'll probably have to say
+Implements the C<ioctl(2)> function. You'll probably have to say
require "ioctl.ph"; # probably in /usr/local/lib/perl/ioctl.ph
(There is a Perl script called B<h2ph> that comes with the Perl kit that
may help you in this, but it's nontrivial.) SCALAR will be read and/or
written depending on the FUNCTION--a pointer to the string value of SCALAR
-will be passed as the third argument of the actual ioctl call. (If SCALAR
+will be passed as the third argument of the actual C<ioctl> call. (If SCALAR
has no string value but does have a numeric value, that value will be
passed rather than a pointer to the string value. To guarantee this to be
-TRUE, add a 0 to the scalar before using it.) The pack() and unpack()
+TRUE, add a C<0> to the scalar before using it.) The C<pack()> and C<unpack()>
functions are useful for manipulating the values of structures used by
-ioctl(). The following example sets the erase character to DEL.
+C<ioctl()>. The following example sets the erase character to DEL.
require 'ioctl.ph';
$getp = &TIOCGETP;
|| die "Can't ioctl: $!";
}
-The return value of ioctl (and fcntl) is as follows:
+The return value of C<ioctl> (and C<fcntl>) is as follows:
if OS returns: then Perl returns:
-1 undefined value
($retval = ioctl(...)) || ($retval = -1);
printf "System returned %d\n", $retval;
-The special string "0 but true" is excempt from B<-w> complaints
+The special string "C<0> but true" is excempt from B<-w> complaints
about improper numeric conversions.
=item join EXPR,LIST
$_ = join(':', $login,$passwd,$uid,$gid,$gcos,$home,$shell);
-See L<perlfunc/split>.
+See L</split>.
=item keys HASH
Returns a list consisting of all the keys of the named hash. (In a
scalar context, returns the number of keys.) The keys are returned in
an apparently random order, but it is the same order as either the
-values() or each() function produces (given that the hash has not been
+C<values()> or C<each()> function produces (given that the hash has not been
modified). As a side effect, it resets HASH's iterator.
Here is yet another way to print your environment:
=item lc
Returns an lowercased version of EXPR. This is the internal function
-implementing the \L escape in double-quoted strings.
-Respects current LC_CTYPE locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale>.
+implementing the C<\L> escape in double-quoted strings.
+Respects current C<LC_CTYPE> locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale>.
-If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
+If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
=item lcfirst EXPR
=item lcfirst
Returns the value of EXPR with the first character lowercased. This is
-the internal function implementing the \l escape in double-quoted strings.
-Respects current LC_CTYPE locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale>.
+the internal function implementing the C<\l> escape in double-quoted strings.
+Respects current C<LC_CTYPE> locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale>.
-If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
+If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
=item length EXPR
=item length
Returns the length in bytes of the value of EXPR. If EXPR is
-omitted, returns length of $_.
+omitted, returns length of C<$_>.
=item link OLDFILE,NEWFILE
be placed in parentheses. See L<perlsub/"Temporary Values via local()">
for details, including issues with tied arrays and hashes.
-You really probably want to be using my() instead, because local() isn't
+You really probably want to be using C<my()> instead, because C<local()> isn't
what most people think of as "local". See L<perlsub/"Private Variables
via my()"> for details.
localtime(time);
All array elements are numeric, and come straight out of a struct tm.
-In particular this means that $mon has the range 0..11 and $wday has
-the range 0..6 with sunday as day 0. Also, $year is the number of
-years since 1900, that is, $year is 123 in year 2023.
+In particular this means that C<$mon> has the range C<0..11> and C<$wday> has
+the range C<0..6> with sunday as day C<0>. Also, C<$year> is the number of
+years since 1900, that is, C<$year> is C<123> in year 2023, and I<not> simply the last two digits of the year.
If EXPR is omitted, uses the current time (C<localtime(time)>).
-In scalar context, returns the ctime(3) value:
+In scalar context, returns the C<ctime(3)> value:
$now_string = localtime; # e.g., "Thu Oct 13 04:54:34 1994"
This scalar value is B<not> locale dependent, see L<perllocale>, but
-instead a Perl builtin. Also see the Time::Local module, and the
-strftime(3) and mktime(3) function available via the POSIX module. To
+instead a Perl builtin. Also see the C<Time::Local> module, and the
+C<strftime(3)> and C<mktime(3)> function available via the POSIX module. To
get somewhat similar but locale dependent date strings, set up your
locale environment variables appropriately (please see L<perllocale>)
and try for example:
=item log
Returns the natural logarithm (base I<e>) of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, returns log
-of $_.
+of C<$_>.
=item lstat FILEHANDLE
=item lstat
-Does the same thing as the stat() function (including setting the
+Does the same thing as the C<stat()> function (including setting the
special C<_> filehandle) but stats a symbolic link instead of the file
the symbolic link points to. If symbolic links are unimplemented on
-your system, a normal stat() is done.
+your system, a normal C<stat()> is done.
-If EXPR is omitted, stats $_.
+If EXPR is omitted, stats C<$_>.
=item m//
=item map EXPR,LIST
-Evaluates the BLOCK or EXPR for each element of LIST (locally setting $_ to each
+Evaluates the BLOCK or EXPR for each element of LIST (locally setting C<$_> to each
element) and returns the list value composed of the results of each such
evaluation. Evaluates BLOCK or EXPR in a list context, so each element of LIST
may produce zero, one, or more elements in the returned value.
$hash{getkey($_)} = $_;
}
-Note that, because $_ is a reference into the list value, it can be used
+Note that, because C<$_> is a reference into the list value, it can be used
to modify the elements of the array. While this is useful and
supported, it can cause bizarre results if the LIST is not a named
array. See also L</grep> for an array composed of those items of the
=item msgctl ID,CMD,ARG
-Calls the System V IPC function msgctl(2). You'll probably have to say
+Calls the System V IPC function C<msgctl(2)>. You'll probably have to say
use IPC::SysV;
-first to get the correct constant definitions. If CMD is IPC_STAT,
-then ARG must be a variable which will hold the returned msqid_ds
-structure. Returns like ioctl: the undefined value for error, "0 but
+first to get the correct constant definitions. If CMD is C<IPC_STAT>,
+then ARG must be a variable which will hold the returned C<msqid_ds>
+structure. Returns like C<ioctl>: the undefined value for error, "C<0> but
true" for zero, or the actual return value otherwise. See also
-IPC::SysV and IPC::Semaphore::Msg documentation.
+C<IPC::SysV> and C<IPC::Semaphore::Msg> documentation.
=item msgget KEY,FLAGS
-Calls the System V IPC function msgget(2). Returns the message queue
-id, or the undefined value if there is an error. See also IPC::SysV
-and IPC::SysV::Msg documentation.
+Calls the System V IPC function C<msgget(2)>. Returns the message queue
+id, or the undefined value if there is an error. See also C<IPC::SysV>
+and C<IPC::SysV::Msg> documentation.
=item msgsnd ID,MSG,FLAGS
Calls the System V IPC function msgsnd to send the message MSG to the
message queue ID. MSG must begin with the long integer message type,
which may be created with C<pack("l", $type)>. Returns TRUE if
-successful, or FALSE if there is an error. See also IPC::SysV
-and IPC::SysV::Msg documentation.
+successful, or FALSE if there is an error. See also C<IPC::SysV>
+and C<IPC::SysV::Msg> documentation.
=item msgrcv ID,VAR,SIZE,TYPE,FLAGS
SIZE. Note that if a message is received, the message type will be
the first thing in VAR, and the maximum length of VAR is SIZE plus the
size of the message type. Returns TRUE if successful, or FALSE if
-there is an error. See also IPC::SysV and IPC::SysV::Msg documentation.
+there is an error. See also C<IPC::SysV> and C<IPC::SysV::Msg> documentation.
=item my EXPR
-A "my" declares the listed variables to be local (lexically) to the
+A C<my> declares the listed variables to be local (lexically) to the
enclosing block, file, or C<eval>. If
more than one value is listed, the list must be placed in parentheses. See
L<perlsub/"Private Variables via my()"> for details.
=item no Module LIST
-See the "use" function, which "no" is the opposite of.
+See the L</use> function, which C<no> is the opposite of.
=item oct EXPR
=item oct
Interprets EXPR as an octal string and returns the corresponding
-value. (If EXPR happens to start off with 0x, interprets it as
+value. (If EXPR happens to start off with C<0x>, interprets it as
a hex string instead.) The following will handle decimal, octal, and
hex in the standard Perl or C notation:
$val = oct($val) if $val =~ /^0/;
-If EXPR is omitted, uses $_. This function is commonly used when
-a string such as "644" needs to be converted into a file mode, for
+If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>. This function is commonly used when
+a string such as C<644> needs to be converted into a file mode, for
example. (Although perl will automatically convert strings into
numbers as needed, this automatic conversion assumes base 10.)
for this purpose; so if you're using C<my>, specify EXPR in your call
to open.)
-If the filename begins with '<' or nothing, the file is opened for input.
-If the filename begins with '>', the file is truncated and opened for
-output, being created if necessary. If the filename begins with '>>',
+If the filename begins with C<'E<lt>'> or nothing, the file is opened for input.
+If the filename begins with C<'E<gt>'>, the file is truncated and opened for
+output, being created if necessary. If the filename begins with C<'E<gt>E<gt>'>,
the file is opened for appending, again being created if necessary.
-You can put a '+' in front of the '>' or '<' to indicate that
-you want both read and write access to the file; thus '+<' is almost
-always preferred for read/write updates--the '+>' mode would clobber the
+You can put a C<'+'> in front of the C<'E<gt>'> or C<'E<lt>'> to indicate that
+you want both read and write access to the file; thus C<'+E<lt>'> is almost
+always preferred for read/write updates--the C<'+E<gt>'> mode would clobber the
file first. You can't usually use either read-write mode for updating
textfiles, since they have variable length records. See the B<-i>
switch in L<perlrun> for a better approach.
The prefix and the filename may be separated with spaces.
-These various prefixes correspond to the fopen(3) modes of 'r', 'r+', 'w',
-'w+', 'a', and 'a+'.
+These various prefixes correspond to the C<fopen(3)> modes of C<'r'>, C<'r+'>, C<'w'>,
+C<'w+'>, C<'a'>, and C<'a+'>.
-If the filename begins with "|", the filename is interpreted as a
+If the filename begins with C<'|'>, the filename is interpreted as a
command to which output is to be piped, and if the filename ends with a
-"|", the filename is interpreted See L<perlipc/"Using open() for IPC">
-for more examples of this. (You are not allowed to open() to a command
+C<'|'>, the filename is interpreted See L<perlipc/"Using open() for IPC">
+for more examples of this. (You are not allowed to C<open()> to a command
that pipes both in I<and> out, but see L<IPC::Open2>, L<IPC::Open3>,
and L<perlipc/"Bidirectional Communication"> for alternatives.)
-Opening '-' opens STDIN and opening 'E<gt>-' opens STDOUT. Open returns
-nonzero upon success, the undefined value otherwise. If the open
+Opening C<'-'> opens STDIN and opening C<'E<gt>-'> opens STDOUT. Open returns
+nonzero upon success, the undefined value otherwise. If the C<open>
involved a pipe, the return value happens to be the pid of the
subprocess.
If you're unfortunate enough to be running Perl on a system that
distinguishes between text files and binary files (modern operating
systems don't care), then you should check out L</binmode> for tips for
-dealing with this. The key distinction between systems that need binmode
+dealing with this. The key distinction between systems that need C<binmode>
and those that don't is their text file formats. Systems like Unix, MacOS, and
Plan9, which delimit lines with a single character, and which encode that
-character in C as '\n', do not need C<binmode>. The rest need it.
+character in C as C<"\n">, do not need C<binmode>. The rest need it.
When opening a file, it's usually a bad idea to continue normal execution
if the request failed, so C<open> is frequently used in connection with
}
You may also, in the Bourne shell tradition, specify an EXPR beginning
-with "E<gt>&", in which case the rest of the string is interpreted as the
+with C<'E<gt>&'>, in which case the rest of the string is interpreted as the
name of a filehandle (or file descriptor, if numeric) to be
-duped and opened. You may use & after E<gt>, E<gt>E<gt>, E<lt>, +E<gt>,
-+E<gt>E<gt>, and +E<lt>. The
+duped and opened. You may use C<&> after C<E<gt>>, C<E<gt>E<gt>>, C<E<lt>>, C<+E<gt>>,
+C<+E<gt>E<gt>>, and C<+E<lt>>. The
mode you specify should match the mode of the original filehandle.
(Duping a filehandle does not take into account any existing contents of
stdio buffers.)
print STDERR "stderr 2\n";
-If you specify "E<lt>&=N", where N is a number, then Perl will do an
-equivalent of C's fdopen() of that file descriptor; this is more
+If you specify C<'E<lt>&=N'>, where C<N> is a number, then Perl will do an
+equivalent of C's C<fdopen()> of that file descriptor; this is more
parsimonious of file descriptors. For example:
open(FILEHANDLE, "<&=$fd")
-If you open a pipe on the command "-", i.e., either "|-" or "-|", then
+If you open a pipe on the command C<'-'>, i.e., either C<'|-'> or C<'-|'>, then
there is an implicit fork done, and the return value of open is the pid
-of the child within the parent process, and 0 within the child
+of the child within the parent process, and C<0> within the child
process. (Use C<defined($pid)> to determine whether the open was successful.)
The filehandle behaves normally for the parent, but i/o to that
filehandle is piped from/to the STDOUT/STDIN of the child process.
whitespace deleted, and the normal redirection chararacters
honored. This property, known as "magic open",
can often be used to good effect. A user could specify a filename of
-"rsh cat file |", or you could change certain filenames as needed:
+F<"rsh cat file |">, or you could change certain filenames as needed:
$filename =~ s/(.*\.gz)\s*$/gzip -dc < $1|/;
open(FH, $filename) or die "Can't open $filename: $!";
$file =~ s#^(\s)#./$1#;
open(FOO, "< $file\0");
-If you want a "real" C open() (see L<open(2)> on your system), then you
-should use the sysopen() function, which involves no such magic. This is
+If you want a "real" C C<open()> (see L<open(2)> on your system), then you
+should use the C<sysopen()> function, which involves no such magic. This is
another way to protect your filenames from interpretation. For example:
use IO::Handle;
seek(HANDLE, 0, 0);
print "File contains: ", <HANDLE>;
-Using the constructor from the IO::Handle package (or one of its
-subclasses, such as IO::File or IO::Socket), you can generate anonymous
+Using the constructor from the C<IO::Handle> package (or one of its
+subclasses, such as C<IO::File> or C<IO::Socket>), you can generate anonymous
filehandles that have the scope of whatever variables hold references to
them, and automatically close whenever and however you leave that scope:
=item opendir DIRHANDLE,EXPR
-Opens a directory named EXPR for processing by readdir(), telldir(),
-seekdir(), rewinddir(), and closedir(). Returns TRUE if successful.
+Opens a directory named EXPR for processing by C<readdir()>, C<telldir()>,
+C<seekdir()>, C<rewinddir()>, and C<closedir()>. Returns TRUE if successful.
DIRHANDLEs have their own namespace separate from FILEHANDLEs.
=item ord EXPR
=item ord
Returns the numeric ascii value of the first character of EXPR. If
-EXPR is omitted, uses $_. For the reverse, see L</chr>.
+EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>. For the reverse, see L</chr>.
=item pack TEMPLATE,LIST
@ Null fill to absolute position.
Each letter may optionally be followed by a number giving a repeat
-count. With all types except "a", "A", "b", "B", "h", "H", and "P" the
-pack function will gobble up that many values from the LIST. A * for the
-repeat count means to use however many items are left. The "a" and "A"
+count. With all types except C<"a">, C<"A">, C<"b">, C<"B">, C<"h">, C<"H">, and C<"P"> the
+pack function will gobble up that many values from the LIST. A C<*> for the
+repeat count means to use however many items are left. The C<"a"> and C<"A">
types gobble just one value, but pack it as a string of length count,
-padding with nulls or spaces as necessary. (When unpacking, "A" strips
-trailing spaces and nulls, but "a" does not.) Likewise, the "b" and "B"
-fields pack a string that many bits long. The "h" and "H" fields pack a
-string that many nybbles long. The "p" type packs a pointer to a null-
+padding with nulls or spaces as necessary. (When unpacking, C<"A"> strips
+trailing spaces and nulls, but C<"a"> does not.) Likewise, the C<"b"> and C<"B">
+fields pack a string that many bits long. The C<"h"> and C<"H"> fields pack a
+string that many nybbles long. The C<"p"> type packs a pointer to a null-
terminated string. You are responsible for ensuring the string is not a
temporary value (which can potentially get deallocated before you get
-around to using the packed result). The "P" packs a pointer to a structure
+around to using the packed result). The C<"P"> packs a pointer to a structure
of the size indicated by the length. A NULL pointer is created if the
-corresponding value for "p" or "P" is C<undef>.
+corresponding value for C<"p"> or C<"P"> is C<undef>.
Real numbers (floats and doubles) are
in the native machine format only; due to the multiplicity of floating
formats around, and the lack of a standard "network" representation, no
representation is not part of the IEEE spec). Note that Perl uses doubles
internally for all numeric calculation, and converting from double into
float and thence back to double again will lose precision (i.e.,
-C<unpack("f", pack("f", $foo)>) will not in general equal $foo).
+C<unpack("f", pack("f", $foo)>) will not in general equal C<$foo>).
Examples:
Declares the compilation unit as being in the given namespace. The scope
of the package declaration is from the declaration itself through the end of
-the enclosing block (the same scope as the local() operator). All further
+the enclosing block (the same scope as the C<local()> operator). All further
unqualified dynamic identifiers will be in this namespace. A package
statement affects only dynamic variables--including those you've used
-local() on--but I<not> lexical variables created with my(). Typically it
+C<local()> on--but I<not> lexical variables created with C<my()>. Typically it
would be the first declaration in a file to be included by the C<require>
or C<use> operator. You can switch into a package in more than one place;
it merely influences which symbol table is used by the compiler for the
If there are no elements in the array, returns the undefined value.
If ARRAY is omitted, pops the
-@ARGV array in the main program, and the @_ array in subroutines, just
-like shift().
+C<@ARGV> array in the main program, and the C<@_> array in subroutines, just
+like C<shift()>.
=item pos SCALAR
=item pos
Returns the offset of where the last C<m//g> search left off for the variable
-is in question ($_ is used when the variable is not specified). May be
+is in question (C<$_> is used when the variable is not specified). May be
modified to change that offset. Such modification will also influence
the C<\G> zero-width assertion in regular expressions. See L<perlre> and
L<perlop>.
the variable contains the name of or a reference to the filehandle, thus introducing one
level of indirection. (NOTE: If FILEHANDLE is a variable and the next
token is a term, it may be misinterpreted as an operator unless you
-interpose a + or put parentheses around the arguments.) If FILEHANDLE is
+interpose a C<+> or put parentheses around the arguments.) If FILEHANDLE is
omitted, prints by default to standard output (or to the last selected
-output channel--see L</select>). If LIST is also omitted, prints $_ to
+output channel--see L</select>). If LIST is also omitted, prints C<$_> to
the currently selected output channel. To set the default output channel to something other than
STDOUT use the select operation. Note that, because print takes a
LIST, anything in the LIST is evaluated in list context, and any
subroutine that you call will have one or more of its expressions
evaluated in list context. Also be careful not to follow the print
keyword with a left parenthesis unless you want the corresponding right
-parenthesis to terminate the arguments to the print--interpose a + or
+parenthesis to terminate the arguments to the print--interpose a C<+> or
put parentheses around all the arguments.
Note that if you're storing FILEHANDLES in an array or other expression,
=item printf FORMAT, LIST
-Equivalent to C<print FILEHANDLE sprintf(FORMAT, LIST)>, except that $\
+Equivalent to C<print FILEHANDLE sprintf(FORMAT, LIST)>, except that C<$\>
(the output record separator) is not appended. The first argument
-of the list will be interpreted as the printf format. If C<use locale> is
+of the list will be interpreted as the C<printf> format. If C<use locale> is
in effect, the character used for the decimal point in formatted real numbers
is affected by the LC_NUMERIC locale. See L<perllocale>.
-Don't fall into the trap of using a printf() when a simple
-print() would do. The print() is more efficient and less
+Don't fall into the trap of using a C<printf()> when a simple
+C<print()> would do. The C<print()> is more efficient and less
error prone.
=item prototype FUNCTION
C</[A-Za-z_0-9]/> will be preceded by a backslash in the
returned string, regardless of any locale settings.)
This is the internal function implementing
-the \Q escape in double-quoted strings.
+the C<\Q> escape in double-quoted strings.
-If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
+If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
=item rand EXPR
=item rand
-Returns a random fractional number greater than or equal to 0 and less
+Returns a random fractional number greater than or equal to C<0> and less
than the value of EXPR. (EXPR should be positive.) If EXPR is
-omitted, the value 1 is used. Automatically calls srand() unless
-srand() has already been called. See also srand().
+omitted, the value C<1> is used. Automatically calls C<srand()> unless
+C<srand()> has already been called. See also C<srand()>.
(Note: If your rand function consistently returns numbers that are too
large or too small, then your version of Perl was probably compiled
C<0> at end of file, or undef if there was an error. SCALAR will be grown
or shrunk to the length actually read. An OFFSET may be specified to
place the read data at some other place than the beginning of the
-string. This call is actually implemented in terms of stdio's fread(3)
-call. To get a true read(2) system call, see sysread().
+string. This call is actually implemented in terms of stdio's C<fread(3)>
+call. To get a true C<read(2)> system call, see C<sysread()>.
=item readdir DIRHANDLE
-Returns the next directory entry for a directory opened by opendir().
+Returns the next directory entry for a directory opened by C<opendir()>.
If used in list context, returns all the rest of the entries in the
directory. If there are no more entries, returns an undefined value in
scalar context or a null list in list context.
-If you're planning to filetest the return values out of a readdir(), you'd
+If you're planning to filetest the return values out of a C<readdir()>, you'd
better prepend the directory in question. Otherwise, because we didn't
-chdir() there, it would have been testing the wrong file.
+C<chdir()> there, it would have been testing the wrong file.
opendir(DIR, $some_dir) || die "can't opendir $some_dir: $!";
@dots = grep { /^\./ && -f "$some_dir/$_" } readdir(DIR);
Reads from the filehandle whose typeglob is contained in EXPR. In scalar context, a single line
is read and returned. In list context, reads until end-of-file is
reached and returns a list of lines (however you've defined lines
-with $/ or $INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR).
+with C<$/> or C<$INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR>).
This is the internal function implementing the C<E<lt>EXPRE<gt>>
operator, but you can use it directly. The C<E<lt>EXPRE<gt>>
operator is discussed in more detail in L<perlop/"I/O Operators">.
Returns the value of a symbolic link, if symbolic links are
implemented. If not, gives a fatal error. If there is some system
error, returns the undefined value and sets C<$!> (errno). If EXPR is
-omitted, uses $_.
+omitted, uses C<$_>.
=item readpipe EXPR
The collected standard output of the command is returned.
In scalar context, it comes back as a single (potentially
multi-line) string. In list context, returns a list of lines
-(however you've defined lines with $/ or $INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR).
+(however you've defined lines with C<$/> or C<$INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR>).
This is the internal function implementing the C<qx/EXPR/>
operator, but you can use it directly. The C<qx/EXPR/>
operator is discussed in more detail in L<perlop/"I/O Operators">.
Receives a message on a socket. Attempts to receive LENGTH bytes of
data into variable SCALAR from the specified SOCKET filehandle.
-Actually does a C recvfrom(), so that it can return the address of the
+Actually does a C C<recvfrom()>, so that it can return the address of the
sender. Returns the undefined value if there's an error. SCALAR will
be grown or shrunk to the length actually read. Takes the same flags
as the system call of the same name.
=item ref
Returns a TRUE value if EXPR is a reference, FALSE otherwise. If EXPR
-is not specified, $_ will be used. The value returned depends on the
+is not specified, C<$_> will be used. The value returned depends on the
type of thing the reference is a reference to.
Builtin types include:
GLOB
If the referenced object has been blessed into a package, then that package
-name is returned instead. You can think of ref() as a typeof() operator.
+name is returned instead. You can think of C<ref()> as a C<typeof()> operator.
if (ref($r) eq "HASH") {
print "r is a reference to a hash.\n";
=item rename OLDNAME,NEWNAME
-Changes the name of a file. Returns 1 for success, 0 otherwise. Will
+Changes the name of a file. Returns C<1> for success, C<0> otherwise. Will
not work across file system boundaries.
=item require EXPR
=item require
-Demands some semantics specified by EXPR, or by $_ if EXPR is not
+Demands some semantics specified by EXPR, or by C<$_> if EXPR is not
supplied. If EXPR is numeric, demands that the current version of Perl
(C<$]> or $PERL_VERSION) be equal or greater than EXPR.
Otherwise, demands that a library file be included if it hasn't already
been included. The file is included via the do-FILE mechanism, which is
-essentially just a variety of eval(). Has semantics similar to the following
+essentially just a variety of C<eval()>. Has semantics similar to the following
subroutine:
sub require {
Note that the file will not be included twice under the same specified
name. The file must return TRUE as the last statement to indicate
successful execution of any initialization code, so it's customary to
-end such a file with "1;" unless you're sure it'll return TRUE
+end such a file with "C<1;>" unless you're sure it'll return TRUE
otherwise. But it's better just to put the "C<1;>", in case you add more
statements.
require Foo::Bar; # a splendid bareword
-The require function will actually look for the "Foo/Bar.pm" file in the
-directories specified in the @INC array.
+The require function will actually look for the "F<Foo/Bar.pm>" file in the
+directories specified in the C<@INC> array.
But if you try this:
#or
require "Foo::Bar"; # not a bareword because of the ""
-The require function will look for the "Foo::Bar" file in the @INC array and
-will complain about not finding "Foo::Bar" there. In this case you can do:
+The require function will look for the "F<Foo::Bar>" file in the @INC array and
+will complain about not finding "F<Foo::Bar>" there. In this case you can do:
eval "require $class";
=item reset
Generally used in a C<continue> block at the end of a loop to clear
-variables and reset ?? searches so that they work again. The
+variables and reset C<??> searches so that they work again. The
expression is interpreted as a list of single characters (hyphens
allowed for ranges). All variables and arrays beginning with one of
those letters are reset to their pristine state. If the expression is
-omitted, one-match searches (?pattern?) are reset to match again. Resets
+omitted, one-match searches (C<?pattern?>) are reset to match again. Resets
only variables or searches in the current package. Always returns
1. Examples:
reset 'a-z'; # reset lower case variables
reset; # just reset ?? searches
-Resetting "A-Z" is not recommended because you'll wipe out your
-ARGV and ENV arrays. Resets only package variables--lexical variables
+Resetting C<"A-Z"> is not recommended because you'll wipe out your
+C<@ARGV> and C<@INC> arrays and your C<%ENV> hash. Resets only package variables--lexical variables
are unaffected, but they clean themselves up on scope exit anyway,
so you'll probably want to use them instead. See L</my>.
=item return
-Returns from a subroutine, eval(), or C<do FILE> with the value
+Returns from a subroutine, C<eval()>, or C<do FILE> with the value
given in EXPR. Evaluation of EXPR may be in list, scalar, or void
context, depending on how the return value will be used, and the context
-may vary from one execution to the next (see wantarray()). If no EXPR
+may vary from one execution to the next (see C<wantarray()>). If no EXPR
is given, returns an empty list in list context, an undefined value in
scalar context, or nothing in a void context.
=item rewinddir DIRHANDLE
Sets the current position to the beginning of the directory for the
-readdir() routine on DIRHANDLE.
+C<readdir()> routine on DIRHANDLE.
=item rindex STR,SUBSTR,POSITION
Deletes the directory specified by FILENAME if that directory is empty. If it
succeeds it returns TRUE, otherwise it returns FALSE and sets C<$!> (errno). If
-FILENAME is omitted, uses $_.
+FILENAME is omitted, uses C<$_>.
=item s///
=item seek FILEHANDLE,POSITION,WHENCE
-Sets FILEHANDLE's position, just like the fseek() call of stdio.
+Sets FILEHANDLE's position, just like the C<fseek()> call of C<stdio>.
FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name of the
-filehandle. The values for WHENCE are 0 to set the new position to
-POSITION, 1 to set it to the current position plus POSITION, and 2 to
+filehandle. The values for WHENCE are C<0> to set the new position to
+POSITION, C<1> to set it to the current position plus POSITION, and C<2> to
set it to EOF plus POSITION (typically negative). For WHENCE you may
-use the constants SEEK_SET, SEEK_CUR, and SEEK_END from either the
-IO::Seekable or the POSIX module. Returns 1 upon success, 0 otherwise.
+use the constants C<SEEK_SET>, C<SEEK_CUR>, and C<SEEK_END> from either the
+C<IO::Seekable> or the POSIX module. Returns C<1> upon success, C<0> otherwise.
-If you want to position file for sysread() or syswrite(), don't use
-seek() -- buffering makes its effect on the file's system position
-unpredictable and non-portable. Use sysseek() instead.
+If you want to position file for C<sysread()> or C<syswrite()>, don't use
+C<seek()> -- buffering makes its effect on the file's system position
+unpredictable and non-portable. Use C<sysseek()> instead.
On some systems you have to do a seek whenever you switch between reading
and writing. Amongst other things, this may have the effect of calling
-stdio's clearerr(3). A WHENCE of 1 (SEEK_CUR) is useful for not moving
+stdio's C<clearerr(3)>. A WHENCE of C<1> (C<SEEK_CUR>) is useful for not moving
the file position:
seek(TEST,0,1);
This is also useful for applications emulating C<tail -f>. Once you hit
EOF on your read, and then sleep for a while, you might have to stick in a
-seek() to reset things. The seek() doesn't change the current position,
+seek() to reset things. The C<seek()> doesn't change the current position,
but it I<does> clear the end-of-file condition on the handle, so that the
next C<E<lt>FILEE<gt>> makes Perl try again to read something. We hope.
=item seekdir DIRHANDLE,POS
-Sets the current position for the readdir() routine on DIRHANDLE. POS
-must be a value returned by telldir(). Has the same caveats about
+Sets the current position for the C<readdir()> routine on DIRHANDLE. POS
+must be a value returned by C<telldir()>. Has the same caveats about
possible directory compaction as the corresponding system library
routine.
=item select RBITS,WBITS,EBITS,TIMEOUT
-This calls the select(2) system call with the bit masks specified, which
-can be constructed using fileno() and vec(), along these lines:
+This calls the C<select(2)> system call with the bit masks specified, which
+can be constructed using C<fileno()> and C<vec()>, along these lines:
$rin = $win = $ein = '';
vec($rin,fileno(STDIN),1) = 1;
$nfound = select($rout=$rin, $wout=$win, $eout=$ein, undef);
-Most systems do not bother to return anything useful in $timeleft, so
-calling select() in scalar context just returns $nfound.
+Most systems do not bother to return anything useful in C<$timeleft>, so
+calling select() in scalar context just returns C<$nfound>.
Any of the bit masks can also be undef. The timeout, if specified, is
in seconds, which may be fractional. Note: not all implementations are
-capable of returning the $timeleft. If not, they always return
-$timeleft equal to the supplied $timeout.
+capable of returning theC<$timeleft>. If not, they always return
+C<$timeleft> equal to the supplied C<$timeout>.
You can effect a sleep of 250 milliseconds this way:
select(undef, undef, undef, 0.25);
-B<WARNING>: One should not attempt to mix buffered I/O (like read()
-or E<lt>FHE<gt>) with select(), except as permitted by POSIX, and even
-then only on POSIX systems. You have to use sysread() instead.
+B<WARNING>: One should not attempt to mix buffered I/O (like C<read()>
+or E<lt>FHE<gt>) with C<select()>, except as permitted by POSIX, and even
+then only on POSIX systems. You have to use C<sysread()> instead.
=item semctl ID,SEMNUM,CMD,ARG
-Calls the System V IPC function semctl. You'll probably have to say
+Calls the System V IPC function C<semctl>. You'll probably have to say
use IPC::SysV;
first to get the correct constant definitions. If CMD is IPC_STAT or
GETALL, then ARG must be a variable which will hold the returned
-semid_ds structure or semaphore value array. Returns like ioctl: the
-undefined value for error, "0 but true" for zero, or the actual return
-value otherwise. See also IPC::SysV and IPC::Semaphore documentation.
+semid_ds structure or semaphore value array. Returns like C<ioctl>: the
+undefined value for error, "C<0> but true" for zero, or the actual return
+value otherwise. See also C<IPC::SysV> and C<IPC::Semaphore> documentation.
=item semget KEY,NSEMS,FLAGS
Calls the System V IPC function semget. Returns the semaphore id, or
-the undefined value if there is an error. See also IPC::SysV and
-IPC::SysV::Semaphore documentation.
+the undefined value if there is an error. See also C<IPC::SysV> and
+C<IPC::SysV::Semaphore> documentation.
=item semop KEY,OPSTRING
C<pack("sss", $semnum, $semop, $semflag)>. The number of semaphore
operations is implied by the length of OPSTRING. Returns TRUE if
successful, or FALSE if there is an error. As an example, the
-following code waits on semaphore $semnum of semaphore id $semid:
+following code waits on semaphore C<$semnum> of semaphore id C<$semid>:
$semop = pack("sss", $semnum, -1, 0);
die "Semaphore trouble: $!\n" unless semop($semid, $semop);
-To signal the semaphore, replace "-1" with "1". See also IPC::SysV
-and IPC::SysV::Semaphore documentation.
+To signal the semaphore, replace C<-1> with C<1>. See also C<IPC::SysV>
+and C<IPC::SysV::Semaphore> documentation.
=item send SOCKET,MSG,FLAGS,TO
Sends a message on a socket. Takes the same flags as the system call
of the same name. On unconnected sockets you must specify a
-destination to send TO, in which case it does a C sendto(). Returns
+destination to send TO, in which case it does a C C<sendto()>. Returns
the number of characters sent, or the undefined value if there is an
error.
See L<perlipc/"UDP: Message Passing"> for examples.
=item setpgrp PID,PGRP
-Sets the current process group for the specified PID, 0 for the current
+Sets the current process group for the specified PID, C<0> for the current
process. Will produce a fatal error if used on a machine that doesn't
-implement setpgrp(2). If the arguments are omitted, it defaults to
-0,0. Note that the POSIX version of setpgrp() does not accept any
-arguments, so only setpgrp 0,0 is portable.
+implement C<setpgrp(2)>. If the arguments are omitted, it defaults to
+C<0,0>. Note that the POSIX version of C<setpgrp()> does not accept any
+arguments, so only setpgrp C<0,0> is portable.
=item setpriority WHICH,WHO,PRIORITY
Sets the current priority for a process, a process group, or a user.
-(See setpriority(2).) Will produce a fatal error if used on a machine
-that doesn't implement setpriority(2).
+(See C<setpriority(2)>.) Will produce a fatal error if used on a machine
+that doesn't implement C<setpriority(2)>.
=item setsockopt SOCKET,LEVEL,OPTNAME,OPTVAL
Sets the socket option requested. Returns undefined if there is an
-error. OPTVAL may be specified as undef if you don't want to pass an
+error. OPTVAL may be specified as C<undef> if you don't want to pass an
argument.
=item shift ARRAY
Shifts the first value of the array off and returns it, shortening the
array by 1 and moving everything down. If there are no elements in the
array, returns the undefined value. If ARRAY is omitted, shifts the
-@_ array within the lexical scope of subroutines and formats, and the
-@ARGV array at file scopes or within the lexical scopes established by
+C<@_> array within the lexical scope of subroutines and formats, and the
+C<@ARGV> array at file scopes or within the lexical scopes established by
the C<eval ''>, C<BEGIN {}>, C<END {}>, and C<INIT {}> constructs.
-See also unshift(), push(), and pop(). Shift() and unshift() do the
-same thing to the left end of an array that pop() and push() do to the
+See also C<unshift()>, C<push()>, and C<pop()>. C<Shift()> and C<unshift()> do the
+same thing to the left end of an array that C<pop()> and C<push()> do to the
right end.
=item shmctl ID,CMD,ARG
use IPC::SysV;
-first to get the correct constant definitions. If CMD is IPC_STAT,
-then ARG must be a variable which will hold the returned shmid_ds
-structure. Returns like ioctl: the undefined value for error, "0 but
+first to get the correct constant definitions. If CMD is C<IPC_STAT>,
+then ARG must be a variable which will hold the returned C<shmid_ds>
+structure. Returns like ioctl: the undefined value for error, "C<0> but
true" for zero, or the actual return value otherwise.
-See also IPC::SysV documentation.
+See also C<IPC::SysV> documentation.
=item shmget KEY,SIZE,FLAGS
Calls the System V IPC function shmget. Returns the shared memory
segment id, or the undefined value if there is an error.
-See also IPC::SysV documentation.
+See also C<IPC::SysV> documentation.
=item shmread ID,VAR,POS,SIZE
hold the data read. When writing, if STRING is too long, only SIZE
bytes are used; if STRING is too short, nulls are written to fill out
SIZE bytes. Return TRUE if successful, or FALSE if there is an error.
-See also IPC::SysV documentation.
+See also C<IPC::SysV> documentation.
=item shutdown SOCKET,HOW
=item sin
Returns the sine of EXPR (expressed in radians). If EXPR is omitted,
-returns sine of $_.
+returns sine of C<$_>.
-For the inverse sine operation, you may use the POSIX::asin()
+For the inverse sine operation, you may use the C<POSIX::asin()>
function, or use this relation:
sub asin { atan2($_[0], sqrt(1 - $_[0] * $_[0])) }
=item sleep
Causes the script to sleep for EXPR seconds, or forever if no EXPR.
-May be interrupted if the process receives a signal such as SIGALRM.
+May be interrupted if the process receives a signal such as C<SIGALRM>.
Returns the number of seconds actually slept. You probably cannot
-mix alarm() and sleep() calls, because sleep() is often implemented
-using alarm().
+mix C<alarm()> and C<sleep()> calls, because C<sleep()> is often implemented
+using C<alarm()>.
On some older systems, it may sleep up to a full second less than what
you requested, depending on how it counts seconds. Most modern systems
busy multitasking system.
For delays of finer granularity than one second, you may use Perl's
-syscall() interface to access setitimer(2) if your system supports it,
+C<syscall()> interface to access C<setitimer(2)> if your system supports it,
or else see L</select()> above.
-See also the POSIX module's sigpause() function.
+See also the POSIX module's C<sigpause()> function.
=item socket SOCKET,DOMAIN,TYPE,PROTOCOL
Opens a socket of the specified kind and attaches it to filehandle
SOCKET. DOMAIN, TYPE, and PROTOCOL are specified the same as for the
-system call of the same name. You should "use Socket;" first to get
+system call of the same name. You should "C<use Socket;>" first to get
the proper definitions imported. See the example in L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">.
=item socketpair SOCKET1,SOCKET2,DOMAIN,TYPE,PROTOCOL
for the system call of the same name. If unimplemented, yields a fatal
error. Returns TRUE if successful.
-Some systems defined pipe() in terms of socketpair, in which a call
+Some systems defined C<pipe()> in terms of C<socketpair>, in which a call
to C<pipe(Rdr, Wtr)> is essentially:
use Socket;
=item sort LIST
Sorts the LIST and returns the sorted list value. If SUBNAME or BLOCK
-is omitted, sorts in standard string comparison order. If SUBNAME is
+is omitted, C<sort>s in standard string comparison order. If SUBNAME is
specified, it gives the name of a subroutine that returns an integer
-less than, equal to, or greater than 0, depending on how the elements
+less than, equal to, or greater than C<0>, depending on how the elements
of the array are to be ordered. (The C<E<lt>=E<gt>> and C<cmp>
operators are extremely useful in such routines.) SUBNAME may be a
scalar variable name (unsubscripted), in which case the value provides
In the interests of efficiency the normal calling code for subroutines is
bypassed, with the following effects: the subroutine may not be a
recursive subroutine, and the two elements to be compared are passed into
-the subroutine not via @_ but as the package global variables $a and
-$b (see example below). They are passed by reference, so don't
-modify $a and $b. And don't try to declare them as lexicals either.
+the subroutine not via C<@_> but as the package global variables C<$a> and
+C<$b> (see example below). They are passed by reference, so don't
+modify C<$a> and C<$b>. And don't try to declare them as lexicals either.
You also cannot exit out of the sort block or subroutine using any of the
-loop control operators described in L<perlsyn> or with goto().
+loop control operators described in L<perlsyn> or with C<goto()>.
When C<use locale> is in effect, C<sort LIST> sorts LIST according to the
current collation locale. See L<perllocale>.
$a->[2] cmp $b->[2]
} map { [$_, /=(\d+)/, uc($_)] } @old;
-If you're using strict, you I<MUST NOT> declare $a
-and $b as lexicals. They are package globals. That means
+If you're using strict, you I<MUST NOT> declare C<$a>
+and C<$b> as lexicals. They are package globals. That means
if you're in the C<main> package, it's
@articles = sort {$main::b <=> $main::a} @files;
@articles = sort {$FooPack::b <=> $FooPack::a} @files;
The comparison function is required to behave. If it returns
-inconsistent results (sometimes saying $x[1] is less than $x[2] and
-sometimes saying the opposite, for example) the Perl interpreter will
-probably crash and dump core. This is entirely due to and dependent
-upon your system's qsort(3) library routine; this routine often avoids
-sanity checks in the interest of speed.
+inconsistent results (sometimes saying C<$x[1]> is less than C<$x[2]> and
+sometimes saying the opposite, for example) the results are not
+well-defined.
=item splice ARRAY,OFFSET,LENGTH,LIST
empty leading fields are preserved, and empty trailing ones are deleted.
If not in list context, returns the number of fields found and splits into
-the @_ array. (In list context, you can force the split into @_ by
+the C<@_> array. (In list context, you can force the split into C<@_> by
using C<??> as the pattern delimiters, but it still returns the list
-value.) The use of implicit split to @_ is deprecated, however, because
+value.) The use of implicit split to C<@_> is deprecated, however, because
it clobbers your subroutine arguments.
-If EXPR is omitted, splits the $_ string. If PATTERN is also omitted,
+If EXPR is omitted, splits the C<$_> string. If PATTERN is also omitted,
splits on whitespace (after skipping any leading whitespace). Anything
matching PATTERN is taken to be a delimiter separating the fields. (Note
that the delimiter may be longer than one character.)
If LIMIT is specified and positive, splits into no more than that
many fields (though it may split into fewer). If LIMIT is unspecified
or zero, trailing null fields are stripped (which potential users
-of pop() would do well to remember). If LIMIT is negative, it is
+of C<pop()> would do well to remember). If LIMIT is negative, it is
treated as if an arbitrarily large LIMIT had been specified.
A pattern matching the null string (not to be confused with
(1, '-', 10, ',', 20)
-If you had the entire header of a normal Unix email message in $header,
+If you had the entire header of a normal Unix email message in C<$header>,
you could split it up into fields and their values this way:
$header =~ s/\n\s+/ /g; # fix continuation lines
use C</$variable/o>.)
As a special case, specifying a PATTERN of space (C<' '>) will split on
-white space just as split with no arguments does. Thus, split(' ') can
+white space just as C<split> with no arguments does. Thus, C<split(' ')> can
be used to emulate B<awk>'s default behavior, whereas C<split(/ /)>
will give you as many null initial fields as there are leading spaces.
-A split on /\s+/ is like a split(' ') except that any leading
-whitespace produces a null first field. A split with no arguments
+A C<split> on C</\s+/> is like a C<split(' ')> except that any leading
+whitespace produces a null first field. A C<split> with no arguments
really does a C<split(' ', $_)> internally.
Example:
#...
}
-(Note that $shell above will still have a newline on it. See L</chop>,
+(Note that C<$shell> above will still have a newline on it. See L</chop>,
L</chomp>, and L</join>.)
=item sprintf FORMAT, LIST
-Returns a string formatted by the usual printf conventions of the
-C library function sprintf(). See L<sprintf(3)> or L<printf(3)>
+Returns a string formatted by the usual C<printf> conventions of the
+C library function C<sprintf()>. See L<sprintf(3)> or L<printf(3)>
on your system for an explanation of the general principles.
-Perl does its own sprintf() formatting -- it emulates the C
-function sprintf(), but it doesn't use it (except for floating-point
+Perl does its own C<sprintf()> formatting -- it emulates the C
+function C<sprintf()>, but it doesn't use it (except for floating-point
numbers, and even then only the standard modifiers are allowed). As a
-result, any non-standard extensions in your local sprintf() are not
+result, any non-standard extensions in your local C<sprintf()> are not
available from Perl.
-Perl's sprintf() permits the following universally-known conversions:
+Perl's C<sprintf()> permits the following universally-known conversions:
%% a percent sign
%c a character with the given number
V interpret integer as Perl's standard integer type
-Where a number would appear in the flags, an asterisk ("*") may be
+Where a number would appear in the flags, an asterisk ("C<*>") may be
used instead, in which case Perl uses the next item in the parameter
list as the given number (that is, as the field width or precision).
-If a field width obtained through "*" is negative, it has the same
-effect as the '-' flag: left-justification.
+If a field width obtained through "C<*>" is negative, it has the same
+effect as the "C<->" flag: left-justification.
If C<use locale> is in effect, the character used for the decimal
point in formatted real numbers is affected by the LC_NUMERIC locale.
=item sqrt
Return the square root of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, returns square
-root of $_.
+root of C<$_>.
=item srand EXPR
Sets the random number seed for the C<rand> operator. If EXPR is
omitted, uses a semi-random value based on the current time and process
ID, among other things. In versions of Perl prior to 5.004 the default
-seed was just the current time(). This isn't a particularly good seed,
+seed was just the current C<time()>. This isn't a particularly good seed,
so many old programs supply their own seed value (often C<time ^ $$> or
C<time ^ ($$ + ($$ E<lt>E<lt> 15))>), but that isn't necessary any more.
-In fact, it's usually not necessary to call srand() at all, because if
+In fact, it's usually not necessary to call C<srand()> at all, because if
it is not called explicitly, it is called implicitly at the first use of
the C<rand> operator. However, this was not the case in version of Perl
before 5.004, so if your script will run under older Perl versions, it
-should call srand().
+should call C<srand()>.
Note that you need something much more random than the default seed for
cryptographic purposes. Checksumming the compressed output of one or more
srand (time ^ $$ ^ unpack "%L*", `ps axww | gzip`);
-If you're particularly concerned with this, see the Math::TrulyRandom
+If you're particularly concerned with this, see the C<Math::TrulyRandom>
module in CPAN.
-Do I<not> call srand() multiple times in your program unless you know
+Do I<not> call C<srand()> multiple times in your program unless you know
exactly what you're doing and why you're doing it. The point of the
-function is to "seed" the rand() function so that rand() can produce
+function is to "seed" the C<rand()> function so that C<rand()> can produce
a different sequence each time you run your program. Just do it once at the
-top of your program, or you I<won't> get random numbers out of rand()!
+top of your program, or you I<won't> get random numbers out of C<rand()>!
Frequently called programs (like CGI scripts) that simply use
Returns a 13-element list giving the status info for a file, either
the file opened via FILEHANDLE, or named by EXPR. If EXPR is omitted,
-it stats $_. Returns a null list if the stat fails. Typically used
+it stats C<$_>. Returns a null list if the stat fails. Typically used
as follows:
($dev,$ino,$mode,$nlink,$uid,$gid,$rdev,$size,
run times with and without it to see which runs faster. Those loops
which scan for many short constant strings (including the constant
parts of more complex patterns) will benefit most. You may have only
-one study active at a time -- if you study a different scalar the first
-is "unstudied". (The way study works is this: a linked list of every
+one C<study> active at a time -- if you study a different scalar the first
+is "unstudied". (The way C<study> works is this: a linked list of every
character in the string to be searched is made, so we know, for
-example, where all the 'k' characters are. From each search string,
+example, where all the C<'k'> characters are. From each search string,
the rarest character is selected, based on some static frequency tables
constructed from some C programs and English text. Only those places
that contain this "rarest" character are examined.)
print;
}
-In searching for C</\bfoo\b/>, only those locations in $_ that contain "f"
-will be looked at, because "f" is rarer than "o". In general, this is
+In searching for C</\bfoo\b/>, only those locations in C<$_> that contain C<"f">
+will be looked at, because C<"f"> is rarer than C<"o">. In general, this is
a big win except in pathological cases. The only question is whether
it saves you more time than it took to build the linked list in the
first place.
Note that if you have to look for strings that you don't know till
-runtime, you can build an entire loop as a string and eval that to
+runtime, you can build an entire loop as a string and C<eval> that to
avoid recompiling all your patterns all the time. Together with
-undefining $/ to input entire files as one record, this can be very
-fast, often faster than specialized programs like fgrep(1). The following
+undefining C<$/> to input entire files as one record, this can be very
+fast, often faster than specialized programs like C<fgrep(1)>. The following
scans a list of files (C<@files>) for a list of words (C<@words>), and prints
out the names of those files that contain a match:
=item substr EXPR,OFFSET
Extracts a substring out of EXPR and returns it. First character is at
-offset 0, or whatever you've set C<$[> to (but don't do that).
+offset C<0>, or whatever you've set C<$[> to (but don't do that).
If OFFSET is negative (or more precisely, less than C<$[>), starts
that far from the end of the string. If LEN is omitted, returns
everything to the end of the string. If LEN is negative, leaves that
within the string is returned. If the substring is totally outside
the string a warning is produced.
-You can use the substr() function
+You can use the C<substr()> function
as an lvalue, in which case EXPR must be an lvalue. If you assign
something shorter than LEN, the string will shrink, and if you assign
something longer than LEN, the string will grow to accommodate it. To
keep the string the same length you may need to pad or chop your value
-using sprintf().
+using C<sprintf()>.
-An alternative to using substr() as an lvalue is to specify the
+An alternative to using C<substr()> as an lvalue is to specify the
replacement string as the 4th argument. This allows you to replace
parts of the EXPR and return what was there before in one operation.
=item symlink OLDFILE,NEWFILE
Creates a new filename symbolically linked to the old filename.
-Returns 1 for success, 0 otherwise. On systems that don't support
+Returns C<1> for success, C<0> otherwise. On systems that don't support
symbolic links, produces a fatal error at run time. To check for that,
use eval:
an int. If not, the pointer to the string value is passed. You are
responsible to make sure a string is pre-extended long enough to
receive any result that might be written into a string. You can't use a
-string literal (or other read-only string) as an argument to syscall()
+string literal (or other read-only string) as an argument to C<syscall()>
because Perl has to assume that any string pointer might be written
through. If your
integer arguments are not literals and have never been interpreted in a
-numeric context, you may need to add 0 to them to force them to look
-like numbers. This emulates the syswrite() function (or vice versa):
+numeric context, you may need to add C<0> to them to force them to look
+like numbers. This emulates the C<syswrite()> function (or vice versa):
require 'syscall.ph'; # may need to run h2ph
$s = "hi there\n";
which in practice should usually suffice.
Syscall returns whatever value returned by the system call it calls.
-If the system call fails, syscall returns -1 and sets C<$!> (errno).
-Note that some system calls can legitimately return -1. The proper
+If the system call fails, C<syscall> returns C<-1> and sets C<$!> (errno).
+Note that some system calls can legitimately return C<-1>. The proper
way to handle such calls is to assign C<$!=0;> before the call and
-check the value of C<$!> if syscall returns -1.
+check the value of C<$!> if syscall returns C<-1>.
There's a problem with C<syscall(&SYS_pipe)>: it returns the file
number of the read end of the pipe it creates. There is no way
read-only, one means write-only, and two means read/write.
If the file named by FILENAME does not exist and the C<open> call creates
-it (typically because MODE includes the O_CREAT flag), then the value of
+it (typically because MODE includes the C<O_CREAT> flag), then the value of
PERMS specifies the permissions of the newly created file. If you omit
the PERMS argument to C<sysopen>, Perl uses the octal value C<0666>.
These permission values need to be in octal, and are modified by your
process's current C<umask>. The C<umask> value is a number representing
-disabled permissions bits--if your C<umask> were 027 (group can't write;
-others can't read, write, or execute), then passing C<sysopen> 0666 would
-create a file with mode 0640 (C<0666 &~ 027> is 0640).
+disabled permissions bits--if your C<umask> were C<027> (group can't write;
+others can't read, write, or execute), then passing C<sysopen> C<0666> would
+create a file with mode C<0640> (C<0666 &~ 027> is C<0640>).
If you find this C<umask> talk confusing, here's some advice: supply a
-creation mode of 0666 for regular files and one of 0777 for directories
+creation mode of C<0666> for regular files and one of C<0777> for directories
(in C<mkdir>) and executable files. This gives users the freedom of
choice: if they want protected files, they might choose process umasks
-of 022, 027, or even the particularly antisocial mask of 077. Programs
+of C<022>, C<027>, or even the particularly antisocial mask of C<077>. Programs
should rarely if ever make policy decisions better left to the user.
The exception to this is when writing files that should be kept private:
mail files, web browser cookies, I<.rhosts> files, and so on. In short,
-seldom if ever use 0644 as argument to C<sysopen> because that takes
+seldom if ever use C<0644> as argument to C<sysopen> because that takes
away the user's option to have a more permissive umask. Better to omit it.
-The IO::File module provides a more object-oriented approach, if you're
+The C<IO::File> module provides a more object-oriented approach, if you're
into that kind of thing.
=item sysread FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH,OFFSET
=item sysread FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH
Attempts to read LENGTH bytes of data into variable SCALAR from the
-specified FILEHANDLE, using the system call read(2). It bypasses
-stdio, so mixing this with other kinds of reads, print(), write(),
-seek(), or tell() can cause confusion because stdio usually buffers
+specified FILEHANDLE, using the system call C<read(2)>. It bypasses
+stdio, so mixing this with other kinds of reads, C<print()>, C<write()>,
+C<seek()>, or C<tell()> can cause confusion because stdio usually buffers
data. Returns the number of bytes actually read, C<0> at end of file,
or undef if there was an error. SCALAR will be grown or shrunk so that
the last byte actually read is the last byte of the scalar after the read.
string other than the beginning. A negative OFFSET specifies
placement at that many bytes counting backwards from the end of the
string. A positive OFFSET greater than the length of SCALAR results
-in the string being padded to the required size with "\0" bytes before
+in the string being padded to the required size with C<"\0"> bytes before
the result of the read is appended.
=item sysseek FILEHANDLE,POSITION,WHENCE
-Sets FILEHANDLE's system position using the system call lseek(2). It
-bypasses stdio, so mixing this with reads (other than sysread()),
-print(), write(), seek(), or tell() may cause confusion. FILEHANDLE may
+Sets FILEHANDLE's system position using the system call C<lseek(2)>. It
+bypasses stdio, so mixing this with reads (other than C<sysread()>),
+C<print()>, C<write()>, C<seek()>, or C<tell()> may cause confusion. FILEHANDLE may
be an expression whose value gives the name of the filehandle. The
-values for WHENCE are 0 to set the new position to POSITION, 1 to set
-the it to the current position plus POSITION, and 2 to set it to EOF
+values for WHENCE are C<0> to set the new position to POSITION, C<1> to set
+the it to the current position plus POSITION, and C<2> to set it to EOF
plus POSITION (typically negative). For WHENCE, you may use the
-constants SEEK_SET, SEEK_CUR, and SEEK_END from either the IO::Seekable
+constants C<SEEK_SET>, C<SEEK_CUR>, and C<SEEK_END> from either the C<IO::Seekable>
or the POSIX module.
Returns the new position, or the undefined value on failure. A position
-of zero is returned as the string "0 but true"; thus sysseek() returns
+of zero is returned as the string "C<0> but true"; thus C<sysseek()> returns
TRUE on success and FALSE on failure, yet you can still easily determine
the new position.
=item system PROGRAM LIST
-Does exactly the same thing as "exec LIST" except that a fork is done
+Does exactly the same thing as "C<exec LIST>" except that a fork is done
first, and the parent process waits for the child process to complete.
Note that argument processing varies depending on the number of
arguments. If there is more than one argument in LIST, or if LIST is
argument is passed to the system's command shell for parsing (this is
C</bin/sh -c> on Unix platforms, but varies on other platforms). If
there are no shell metacharacters in the argument, it is split into
-words and passed directly to execvp(), which is more efficient.
+words and passed directly to C<execvp()>, which is more efficient.
The return value is the exit status of the program as
-returned by the wait() call. To get the actual exit value divide by
+returned by the C<wait()> call. To get the actual exit value divide by
256. See also L</exec>. This is I<NOT> what you want to use to capture
the output from a command, for that you should use merely backticks or
-qx//, as described in L<perlop/"`STRING`">.
+C<qx//>, as described in L<perlop/"`STRING`">.
-Like exec(), system() allows you to lie to a program about its name if
-you use the "system PROGRAM LIST" syntax. Again, see L</exec>.
+Like C<exec()>, C<system()> allows you to lie to a program about its name if
+you use the "C<system PROGRAM LIST>" syntax. Again, see L</exec>.
-Because system() and backticks block SIGINT and SIGQUIT, killing the
+Because C<system()> and backticks block C<SIGINT> and C<SIGQUIT>, killing the
program they're running doesn't actually interrupt your program.
@args = ("command", "arg1", "arg2");
=item syswrite FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH
Attempts to write LENGTH bytes of data from variable SCALAR to the
-specified FILEHANDLE, using the system call write(2). It bypasses
-stdio, so mixing this with reads (other than sysread()), print(),
-write(), seek(), or tell() may cause confusion because stdio usually
-buffers data. Returns the number of bytes actually written, or undef
+specified FILEHANDLE, using the system call C<write(2)>. It bypasses
+stdio, so mixing this with reads (other than C<sysread())>, C<print()>,
+C<write()>, C<seek()>, or C<tell()> may cause confusion because stdio usually
+buffers data. Returns the number of bytes actually written, or C<undef>
if there was an error. If the LENGTH is greater than the available
data in the SCALAR after the OFFSET, only as much data as is available
will be written.
=item telldir DIRHANDLE
-Returns the current position of the readdir() routines on DIRHANDLE.
-Value may be given to seekdir() to access a particular location in a
+Returns the current position of the C<readdir()> routines on DIRHANDLE.
+Value may be given to C<seekdir()> to access a particular location in a
directory. Has the same caveats about possible directory compaction as
the corresponding system library routine.
This function binds a variable to a package class that will provide the
implementation for the variable. VARIABLE is the name of the variable
to be enchanted. CLASSNAME is the name of a class implementing objects
-of correct type. Any additional arguments are passed to the "new"
-method of the class (meaning TIESCALAR, TIEARRAY, or TIEHASH).
-Typically these are arguments such as might be passed to the dbm_open()
-function of C. The object returned by the "new" method is also
-returned by the tie() function, which would be useful if you want to
+of correct type. Any additional arguments are passed to the "C<new>"
+method of the class (meaning C<TIESCALAR>, C<TIEARRAY>, or C<TIEHASH>).
+Typically these are arguments such as might be passed to the C<dbm_open()>
+function of C. The object returned by the "C<new>" method is also
+returned by the C<tie()> function, which would be useful if you want to
access other methods in CLASSNAME.
-Note that functions such as keys() and values() may return huge lists
+Note that functions such as C<keys()> and C<values()> may return huge lists
when used on large objects, like DBM files. You may prefer to use the
-each() function to iterate over such. Example:
+C<each()> function to iterate over such. Example:
# print out history file offsets
use NDBM_File;
FETCH this,
STORE this, value
-Unlike dbmopen(), the tie() function will not use or require a module
+Unlike C<dbmopen()>, the C<tie()> function will not use or require a module
for you--you need to do that explicitly yourself. See L<DB_File>
-or the F<Config> module for interesting tie() implementations.
+or the F<Config> module for interesting C<tie()> implementations.
For further details see L<perltie>, L<tied VARIABLE>.
=item tied VARIABLE
Returns a reference to the object underlying VARIABLE (the same value
-that was originally returned by the tie() call that bound the variable
+that was originally returned by the C<tie()> call that bound the variable
to a package.) Returns the undefined value if VARIABLE isn't tied to a
package.
Returns the number of non-leap seconds since whatever time the system
considers to be the epoch (that's 00:00:00, January 1, 1904 for MacOS,
and 00:00:00 UTC, January 1, 1970 for most other systems).
-Suitable for feeding to gmtime() and localtime().
+Suitable for feeding to C<gmtime()> and C<localtime()>.
=item times
=item tr///
-The transliteration operator. Same as y///. See L<perlop>.
+The transliteration operator. Same as C<y///>. See L<perlop>.
=item truncate FILEHANDLE,LENGTH
=item uc
Returns an uppercased version of EXPR. This is the internal function
-implementing the \U escape in double-quoted strings.
+implementing the C<\U> escape in double-quoted strings.
Respects current LC_CTYPE locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale>.
-If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
+If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
=item ucfirst EXPR
=item ucfirst
Returns the value of EXPR with the first character uppercased. This is
-the internal function implementing the \u escape in double-quoted strings.
+the internal function implementing the C<\u> escape in double-quoted strings.
Respects current LC_CTYPE locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale>.
-If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
+If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
=item umask EXPR
=item umask
Sets the umask for the process to EXPR and returns the previous value.
-If EXPR is omitted, merely returns the current umask. If umask(2) is
+If EXPR is omitted, merely returns the current umask. If C<umask(2)> is
not implemented on your system, returns C<undef>. Remember that a
umask is a number, usually given in octal; it is I<not> a string of octal
digits. See also L</oct>, if all you have is a string.
=item undef
Undefines the value of EXPR, which must be an lvalue. Use only on a
-scalar value, an array (using "@"), a hash (using "%"), a subroutine
-(using "&"), or a typeglob (using "*"). (Saying C<undef $hash{$key}>
+scalar value, an array (using "C<@>"), a hash (using "C<%>"), a subroutine
+(using "C<&>"), or a typeglob (using "<*>"). (Saying C<undef $hash{$key}>
will probably not do what you expect on most predefined variables or
DBM list values, so don't do that; see L<delete>.) Always returns the
undefined value. You can omit the EXPR, in which case nothing is
unlink @goners;
unlink <*.bak>;
-Note: unlink will not delete directories unless you are superuser and
+Note: C<unlink> will not delete directories unless you are superuser and
the B<-U> flag is supplied to Perl. Even if these conditions are
met, be warned that unlinking a directory can inflict damage on your
-filesystem. Use rmdir instead.
+filesystem. Use C<rmdir> instead.
-If LIST is omitted, uses $_.
+If LIST is omitted, uses C<$_>.
=item unpack TEMPLATE,EXPR
-Unpack does the reverse of pack: it takes a string representing a
+C<Unpack> does the reverse of C<pack>: it takes a string representing a
structure and expands it out into a list value, returning the array
value. (In scalar context, it returns merely the first value
-produced.) The TEMPLATE has the same format as in the pack function.
+produced.) The TEMPLATE has the same format as in the C<pack> function.
Here's a subroutine that does substring:
sub substr {
=item untie VARIABLE
-Breaks the binding between a variable and a package. (See tie().)
+Breaks the binding between a variable and a package. (See C<tie()>.)
=item unshift ARRAY,LIST
unshift(ARGV, '-e') unless $ARGV[0] =~ /^-/;
Note the LIST is prepended whole, not one element at a time, so the
-prepended elements stay in the same order. Use reverse to do the
+prepended elements stay in the same order. Use C<reverse> to do the
reverse.
=item use Module LIST
incompatible ways from older versions of Perl. (We try not to do
this more than we have to.)
-The BEGIN forces the require and import to happen at compile time. The
-require makes sure the module is loaded into memory if it hasn't been
-yet. The import is not a builtin--it's just an ordinary static method
-call into the "Module" package to tell the module to import the list of
+The C<BEGIN> forces the C<require> and C<import> to happen at compile time. The
+C<require> makes sure the module is loaded into memory if it hasn't been
+yet. The C<import> is not a builtin--it's just an ordinary static method
+call into the "C<Module>" package to tell the module to import the list of
features back into the current package. The module can implement its
-import method any way it likes, though most modules just choose to
-derive their import method via inheritance from the Exporter class that
-is defined in the Exporter module. See L<Exporter>. If no import
+C<import> method any way it likes, though most modules just choose to
+derive their C<import> method via inheritance from the C<Exporter> class that
+is defined in the C<Exporter> module. See L<Exporter>. If no C<import>
method can be found then the error is currently silently ignored. This
may change to a fatal error in a future version.
C<use> will call the VERSION method in class Module with the given
version as an argument. The default VERSION method, inherited from
the Universal class, croaks if the given version is larger than the
-value of the variable $Module::VERSION. (Note that there is not a
+value of the variable C<$Module::VERSION>. (Note that there is not a
comma after VERSION!)
Because this is a wide-open interface, pragmas (compiler directives)
which import symbols into the current package (which are effective
through the end of the file).
-There's a corresponding "no" command that unimports meanings imported
-by use, i.e., it calls C<unimport Module LIST> instead of C<import>.
+There's a corresponding "C<no>" command that unimports meanings imported
+by C<use>, i.e., it calls C<unimport Module LIST> instead of C<import>.
no integer;
no strict 'refs';
-If no unimport method can be found the call fails with a fatal error.
+If no C<unimport> method can be found the call fails with a fatal error.
See L<perlmod> for a list of standard modules and pragmas.
files. The first two elements of the list must be the NUMERICAL access
and modification times, in that order. Returns the number of files
successfully changed. The inode modification time of each file is set
-to the current time. This code has the same effect as the "touch"
+to the current time. This code has the same effect as the "C<touch>"
command if the files already exist:
#!/usr/bin/perl
Returns a list consisting of all the values of the named hash. (In a
scalar context, returns the number of values.) The values are
returned in an apparently random order, but it is the same order as
-either the keys() or each() function would produce on the same hash.
-As a side effect, it resets HASH's iterator. See also keys(), each(),
-and sort().
+either the C<keys()> or C<each()> function would produce on the same hash.
+As a side effect, it resets HASH's iterator. See also C<keys()>, C<each()>,
+and C<sort()>.
=item vec EXPR,OFFSET,BITS
Treats the string in EXPR as a vector of unsigned integers, and
returns the value of the bit field specified by OFFSET. BITS specifies
the number of bits that are reserved for each entry in the bit
-vector. This must be a power of two from 1 to 32. vec() may also be
+vector. This must be a power of two from 1 to 32. C<vec()> may also be
assigned to, in which case parentheses are needed to give the expression
the correct precedence as in
vec($image, $max_x * $x + $y, 8) = 3;
-Vectors created with vec() can also be manipulated with the logical
-operators |, &, and ^, which will assume a bit vector operation is
+Vectors created with C<vec()> can also be manipulated with the logical
+operators C<|>, C<&>, and C<^>, which will assume a bit vector operation is
desired when both operands are strings.
-The following code will build up an ASCII string saying 'PerlPerlPerl'.
+The following code will build up an ASCII string saying C<'PerlPerlPerl'>.
The comments show the string after each step. Note that this code works
in the same way on big-endian or little-endian machines.
$bits = unpack("b*", $vector);
@bits = split(//, unpack("b*", $vector));
-If you know the exact length in bits, it can be used in place of the *.
+If you know the exact length in bits, it can be used in place of the C<*>.
=item wait
Waits for a child process to terminate and returns the pid of the
-deceased process, or -1 if there are no child processes. The status is
+deceased process, or C<-1> if there are no child processes. The status is
returned in C<$?>.
=item waitpid PID,FLAGS
Waits for a particular child process to terminate and returns the pid
-of the deceased process, or -1 if there is no such child process. The
+of the deceased process, or C<-1> if there is no such child process. The
status is returned in C<$?>. If you say
use POSIX ":sys_wait_h";
waitpid(-1,&WNOHANG);
then you can do a non-blocking wait for any process. Non-blocking wait
-is available on machines supporting either the waitpid(2) or
-wait4(2) system calls. However, waiting for a particular pid with
-FLAGS of 0 is implemented everywhere. (Perl emulates the system call
+is available on machines supporting either the C<waitpid(2)> or
+C<wait4(2)> system calls. However, waiting for a particular pid with
+FLAGS of C<0> is implemented everywhere. (Perl emulates the system call
by remembering the status values of processes that have exited but have
not been harvested by the Perl script yet.)
=item warn LIST
-Produces a message on STDERR just like die(), but doesn't exit or throw
+Produces a message on STDERR just like C<die()>, but doesn't exit or throw
an exception.
-If LIST is empty and $@ already contains a value (typically from a
-previous eval) that value is used after appending "\t...caught"
-to $@. This is useful for staying almost, but not entirely similar to
-die().
+If LIST is empty and C<$@> already contains a value (typically from a
+previous eval) that value is used after appending C<"\t...caught">
+to C<$@>. This is useful for staying almost, but not entirely similar to
+C<die()>.
-If $@ is empty then the string "Warning: Something's wrong" is used.
+If C<$@> is empty then the string C<"Warning: Something's wrong"> is used.
No message is printed if there is a C<$SIG{__WARN__}> handler
installed. It is the handler's responsibility to deal with the message
-as it sees fit (like, for instance, converting it into a die()). Most
+as it sees fit (like, for instance, converting it into a C<die()>). Most
handlers must therefore make arrangements to actually display the
-warnings that they are not prepared to deal with, by calling warn()
+warnings that they are not prepared to deal with, by calling C<warn()>
again in the handler. Note that this is quite safe and will not
produce an endless loop, since C<__WARN__> hooks are not called from
inside one.
You will find this behavior is slightly different from that of
C<$SIG{__DIE__}> handlers (which don't suppress the error text, but can
-instead call die() again to change it).
+instead call C<die()> again to change it).
Using a C<__WARN__> handler provides a powerful way to silence all
warnings (even the so-called mandatory ones). An example:
Writes a formatted record (possibly multi-line) to the specified FILEHANDLE,
using the format associated with that file. By default the format for
a file is the one having the same name as the filehandle, but the
-format for the current output channel (see the select() function) may be set
+format for the current output channel (see the C<select()> function) may be set
explicitly by assigning the name of the format to the C<$~> variable.
Top of form processing is handled automatically: if there is
"_TOP" appended, but it may be dynamically set to the format of your
choice by assigning the name to the C<$^> variable while the filehandle is
selected. The number of lines remaining on the current page is in
-variable C<$->, which can be set to 0 to force a new page.
+variable C<$->, which can be set to C<0> to force a new page.
If FILEHANDLE is unspecified, output goes to the current default output
channel, which starts out as STDOUT but may be changed by the
is evaluated and the resulting string is used to look up the name of
the FILEHANDLE at run time. For more on formats, see L<perlform>.
-Note that write is I<NOT> the opposite of read. Unfortunately.
+Note that write is I<NOT> the opposite of C<read>. Unfortunately.
=item y///
-The transliteration operator. Same as tr///. See L<perlop>.
+The transliteration operator. Same as C<tr///>. See L<perlop>.
=back
projects / p5sagit/p5-mst-13.2.git / commitdiff