3 perlvar - Perl predefined variables
7 =head2 Predefined Names
9 The following names have special meaning to Perl. Most
10 punctuation names have reasonable mnemonics, or analogs in the
11 shells. Nevertheless, if you wish to use long variable names,
16 at the top of your program. This aliases all the short names to the long
17 names in the current package. Some even have medium names, generally
18 borrowed from B<awk>. In general, it's best to use the
20 use English '-no_match_vars';
22 invocation if you don't need $PREMATCH, $MATCH, or $POSTMATCH, as it avoids
23 a certain performance hit with the use of regular expressions. See
26 Variables that depend on the currently selected filehandle may be set by
27 calling an appropriate object method on the IO::Handle object, although
28 this is less efficient than using the regular built-in variables. (Summary
29 lines below for this contain the word HANDLE.) First you must say
33 after which you may use either
41 Each method returns the old value of the IO::Handle attribute.
42 The methods each take an optional EXPR, which, if supplied, specifies the
43 new value for the IO::Handle attribute in question. If not supplied,
44 most methods do nothing to the current value--except for
45 autoflush(), which will assume a 1 for you, just to be different.
47 Because loading in the IO::Handle class is an expensive operation, you should
48 learn how to use the regular built-in variables.
50 A few of these variables are considered "read-only". This means that if
51 you try to assign to this variable, either directly or indirectly through
52 a reference, you'll raise a run-time exception.
54 You should be very careful when modifying the default values of most
55 special variables described in this document. In most cases you want
56 to localize these variables before changing them, since if you don't,
57 the change may affect other modules which rely on the default values
58 of the special variables that you have changed. This is one of the
59 correct ways to read the whole file at once:
61 open my $fh, "foo" or die $!;
62 local $/; # enable localized slurp mode
66 But the following code is quite bad:
68 open my $fh, "foo" or die $!;
69 undef $/; # enable slurp mode
73 since some other module, may want to read data from some file in the
74 default "line mode", so if the code we have just presented has been
75 executed, the global value of C<$/> is now changed for any other code
76 running inside the same Perl interpreter.
78 Usually when a variable is localized you want to make sure that this
79 change affects the shortest scope possible. So unless you are already
80 inside some short C<{}> block, you should create one yourself. For
84 open my $fh, "foo" or die $!;
91 Here is an example of how your own code can go broken:
99 # do something with $_
102 You probably expect this code to print:
110 Why? Because nasty_break() modifies C<$_> without localizing it
111 first. The fix is to add local():
115 It's easy to notice the problem in such a short example, but in more
116 complicated code you are looking for trouble if you don't localize
117 changes to the special variables.
119 The following list is ordered by scalar variables first, then the
120 arrays, then the hashes.
128 The default input and pattern-searching space. The following pairs are
131 while (<>) {...} # equivalent only in while!
132 while (defined($_ = <>)) {...}
143 Here are the places where Perl will assume $_ even if you
150 Various unary functions, including functions like ord() and int(), as well
151 as the all file tests (C<-f>, C<-d>) except for C<-t>, which defaults to
156 Various list functions like print() and unlink().
160 The pattern matching operations C<m//>, C<s///>, and C<tr///> when used
161 without an C<=~> operator.
165 The default iterator variable in a C<foreach> loop if no other
166 variable is supplied.
170 The implicit iterator variable in the grep() and map() functions.
174 The default place to put an input record when a C<< <FH> >>
175 operation's result is tested by itself as the sole criterion of a C<while>
176 test. Outside a C<while> test, this will not happen.
180 (Mnemonic: underline is understood in certain operations.)
190 Special package variables when using sort(), see L<perlfunc/sort>.
191 Because of this specialness $a and $b don't need to be declared
192 (using local(), use vars, or our()) even when using the strict
193 vars pragma. Don't lexicalize them with C<my $a> or C<my $b>
194 if you want to be able to use them in the sort() comparison block
203 Contains the subpattern from the corresponding set of capturing
204 parentheses from the last pattern match, not counting patterns
205 matched in nested blocks that have been exited already. (Mnemonic:
206 like \digits.) These variables are all read-only and dynamically
207 scoped to the current BLOCK.
213 The string matched by the last successful pattern match (not counting
214 any matches hidden within a BLOCK or eval() enclosed by the current
215 BLOCK). (Mnemonic: like & in some editors.) This variable is read-only
216 and dynamically scoped to the current BLOCK.
218 The use of this variable anywhere in a program imposes a considerable
219 performance penalty on all regular expression matches. See L</BUGS>.
225 The string preceding whatever was matched by the last successful
226 pattern match (not counting any matches hidden within a BLOCK or eval
227 enclosed by the current BLOCK). (Mnemonic: C<`> often precedes a quoted
228 string.) This variable is read-only.
230 The use of this variable anywhere in a program imposes a considerable
231 performance penalty on all regular expression matches. See L</BUGS>.
237 The string following whatever was matched by the last successful
238 pattern match (not counting any matches hidden within a BLOCK or eval()
239 enclosed by the current BLOCK). (Mnemonic: C<'> often follows a quoted
242 local $_ = 'abcdefghi';
244 print "$`:$&:$'\n"; # prints abc:def:ghi
246 This variable is read-only and dynamically scoped to the current BLOCK.
248 The use of this variable anywhere in a program imposes a considerable
249 performance penalty on all regular expression matches. See L</BUGS>.
251 =item $LAST_PAREN_MATCH
255 The text matched by the last bracket of the last successful search pattern.
256 This is useful if you don't know which one of a set of alternative patterns
257 matched. For example:
259 /Version: (.*)|Revision: (.*)/ && ($rev = $+);
261 (Mnemonic: be positive and forward looking.)
262 This variable is read-only and dynamically scoped to the current BLOCK.
266 The text matched by the used group most-recently closed (i.e. the group
267 with the rightmost closing parenthesis) of the last successful search
268 pattern. (Mnemonic: the (possibly) Nested parenthesis that most
271 This is primarily used inside C<(?{...})> blocks for examining text
272 recently matched. For example, to effectively capture text to a variable
273 (in addition to C<$1>, C<$2>, etc.), replace C<(...)> with
275 (?:(...)(?{ $var = $^N }))
277 By setting and then using C<$var> in this way relieves you from having to
278 worry about exactly which numbered set of parentheses they are.
280 This variable is dynamically scoped to the current BLOCK.
282 =item @LAST_MATCH_END
286 This array holds the offsets of the ends of the last successful
287 submatches in the currently active dynamic scope. C<$+[0]> is
288 the offset into the string of the end of the entire match. This
289 is the same value as what the C<pos> function returns when called
290 on the variable that was matched against. The I<n>th element
291 of this array holds the offset of the I<n>th submatch, so
292 C<$+[1]> is the offset past where $1 ends, C<$+[2]> the offset
293 past where $2 ends, and so on. You can use C<$#+> to determine
294 how many subgroups were in the last successful match. See the
295 examples given for the C<@-> variable.
297 =item $MULTILINE_MATCHING
301 Set to a non-zero integer value to do multi-line matching within a
302 string, 0 (or undefined) to tell Perl that it can assume that strings
303 contain a single line, for the purpose of optimizing pattern matches.
304 Pattern matches on strings containing multiple newlines can produce
305 confusing results when C<$*> is 0 or undefined. Default is undefined.
306 (Mnemonic: * matches multiple things.) This variable influences the
307 interpretation of only C<^> and C<$>. A literal newline can be searched
308 for even when C<$* == 0>.
310 Use of C<$*> is deprecated in modern Perl, supplanted by
311 the C</s> and C</m> modifiers on pattern matching.
313 Assigning a non-numerical value to C<$*> triggers a warning (and makes
314 C<$*> act if C<$* == 0>), while assigning a numerical value to C<$*>
315 makes that an implicit C<int> is applied on the value.
317 =item HANDLE->input_line_number(EXPR)
319 =item $INPUT_LINE_NUMBER
325 Current line number for the last filehandle accessed.
327 Each filehandle in Perl counts the number of lines that have been read
328 from it. (Depending on the value of C<$/>, Perl's idea of what
329 constitutes a line may not match yours.) When a line is read from a
330 filehandle (via readline() or C<< <> >>), or when tell() or seek() is
331 called on it, C<$.> becomes an alias to the line counter for that
334 You can adjust the counter by assigning to C<$.>, but this will not
335 actually move the seek pointer. I<Localizing C<$.> will not localize
336 the filehandle's line count>. Instead, it will localize perl's notion
337 of which filehandle C<$.> is currently aliased to.
339 C<$.> is reset when the filehandle is closed, but B<not> when an open
340 filehandle is reopened without an intervening close(). For more
341 details, see L<perlop/"IE<sol>O Operators">. Because C<< <> >> never does
342 an explicit close, line numbers increase across ARGV files (but see
343 examples in L<perlfunc/eof>).
345 You can also use C<< HANDLE->input_line_number(EXPR) >> to access the
346 line counter for a given filehandle without having to worry about
347 which handle you last accessed.
349 (Mnemonic: many programs use "." to mean the current line number.)
351 =item IO::Handle->input_record_separator(EXPR)
353 =item $INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR
359 The input record separator, newline by default. This
360 influences Perl's idea of what a "line" is. Works like B<awk>'s RS
361 variable, including treating empty lines as a terminator if set to
362 the null string. (An empty line cannot contain any spaces
363 or tabs.) You may set it to a multi-character string to match a
364 multi-character terminator, or to C<undef> to read through the end
365 of file. Setting it to C<"\n\n"> means something slightly
366 different than setting to C<"">, if the file contains consecutive
367 empty lines. Setting to C<""> will treat two or more consecutive
368 empty lines as a single empty line. Setting to C<"\n\n"> will
369 blindly assume that the next input character belongs to the next
370 paragraph, even if it's a newline. (Mnemonic: / delimits
371 line boundaries when quoting poetry.)
373 local $/; # enable "slurp" mode
374 local $_ = <FH>; # whole file now here
377 Remember: the value of C<$/> is a string, not a regex. B<awk> has to be
378 better for something. :-)
380 Setting C<$/> to a reference to an integer, scalar containing an integer, or
381 scalar that's convertible to an integer will attempt to read records
382 instead of lines, with the maximum record size being the referenced
385 local $/ = \32768; # or \"32768", or \$var_containing_32768
386 open my $fh, $myfile or die $!;
389 will read a record of no more than 32768 bytes from FILE. If you're
390 not reading from a record-oriented file (or your OS doesn't have
391 record-oriented files), then you'll likely get a full chunk of data
392 with every read. If a record is larger than the record size you've
393 set, you'll get the record back in pieces.
395 On VMS, record reads are done with the equivalent of C<sysread>,
396 so it's best not to mix record and non-record reads on the same
397 file. (This is unlikely to be a problem, because any file you'd
398 want to read in record mode is probably unusable in line mode.)
399 Non-VMS systems do normal I/O, so it's safe to mix record and
400 non-record reads of a file.
402 See also L<perlport/"Newlines">. Also see C<$.>.
404 =item HANDLE->autoflush(EXPR)
406 =item $OUTPUT_AUTOFLUSH
410 If set to nonzero, forces a flush right away and after every write
411 or print on the currently selected output channel. Default is 0
412 (regardless of whether the channel is really buffered by the
413 system or not; C<$|> tells you only whether you've asked Perl
414 explicitly to flush after each write). STDOUT will
415 typically be line buffered if output is to the terminal and block
416 buffered otherwise. Setting this variable is useful primarily when
417 you are outputting to a pipe or socket, such as when you are running
418 a Perl program under B<rsh> and want to see the output as it's
419 happening. This has no effect on input buffering. See L<perlfunc/getc>
420 for that. (Mnemonic: when you want your pipes to be piping hot.)
422 =item IO::Handle->output_field_separator EXPR
424 =item $OUTPUT_FIELD_SEPARATOR
430 The output field separator for the print operator. Ordinarily the
431 print operator simply prints out its arguments without further
432 adornment. To get behavior more like B<awk>, set this variable as
433 you would set B<awk>'s OFS variable to specify what is printed
434 between fields. (Mnemonic: what is printed when there is a "," in
435 your print statement.)
437 =item IO::Handle->output_record_separator EXPR
439 =item $OUTPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR
445 The output record separator for the print operator. Ordinarily the
446 print operator simply prints out its arguments as is, with no
447 trailing newline or other end-of-record string added. To get
448 behavior more like B<awk>, set this variable as you would set
449 B<awk>'s ORS variable to specify what is printed at the end of the
450 print. (Mnemonic: you set C<$\> instead of adding "\n" at the
451 end of the print. Also, it's just like C<$/>, but it's what you
452 get "back" from Perl.)
454 =item $LIST_SEPARATOR
458 This is like C<$,> except that it applies to array and slice values
459 interpolated into a double-quoted string (or similar interpreted
460 string). Default is a space. (Mnemonic: obvious, I think.)
462 =item $SUBSCRIPT_SEPARATOR
468 The subscript separator for multidimensional array emulation. If you
469 refer to a hash element as
475 $foo{join($;, $a, $b, $c)}
479 @foo{$a,$b,$c} # a slice--note the @
483 ($foo{$a},$foo{$b},$foo{$c})
485 Default is "\034", the same as SUBSEP in B<awk>. If your
486 keys contain binary data there might not be any safe value for C<$;>.
487 (Mnemonic: comma (the syntactic subscript separator) is a
488 semi-semicolon. Yeah, I know, it's pretty lame, but C<$,> is already
489 taken for something more important.)
491 Consider using "real" multidimensional arrays as described
498 The output format for printed numbers. This variable is a half-hearted
499 attempt to emulate B<awk>'s OFMT variable. There are times, however,
500 when B<awk> and Perl have differing notions of what counts as
501 numeric. The initial value is "%.I<n>g", where I<n> is the value
502 of the macro DBL_DIG from your system's F<float.h>. This is different from
503 B<awk>'s default OFMT setting of "%.6g", so you need to set C<$#>
504 explicitly to get B<awk>'s value. (Mnemonic: # is the number sign.)
506 Use of C<$#> is deprecated.
508 =item HANDLE->format_page_number(EXPR)
510 =item $FORMAT_PAGE_NUMBER
514 The current page number of the currently selected output channel.
516 (Mnemonic: % is page number in B<nroff>.)
518 =item HANDLE->format_lines_per_page(EXPR)
520 =item $FORMAT_LINES_PER_PAGE
524 The current page length (printable lines) of the currently selected
525 output channel. Default is 60.
527 (Mnemonic: = has horizontal lines.)
529 =item HANDLE->format_lines_left(EXPR)
531 =item $FORMAT_LINES_LEFT
535 The number of lines left on the page of the currently selected output
538 (Mnemonic: lines_on_page - lines_printed.)
540 =item @LAST_MATCH_START
544 $-[0] is the offset of the start of the last successful match.
545 C<$-[>I<n>C<]> is the offset of the start of the substring matched by
546 I<n>-th subpattern, or undef if the subpattern did not match.
548 Thus after a match against $_, $& coincides with C<substr $_, $-[0],
549 $+[0] - $-[0]>. Similarly, C<$>I<n> coincides with C<substr $_, $-[>I<n>C<],
550 $+[>I<n>C<] - $-[>I<n>C<]> if C<$-[>I<n>C<]> is defined, and $+ coincides with
551 C<substr $_, $-[$#-], $+[$#-]>. One can use C<$#-> to find the last
552 matched subgroup in the last successful match. Contrast with
553 C<$#+>, the number of subgroups in the regular expression. Compare
556 This array holds the offsets of the beginnings of the last
557 successful submatches in the currently active dynamic scope.
558 C<$-[0]> is the offset into the string of the beginning of the
559 entire match. The I<n>th element of this array holds the offset
560 of the I<n>th submatch, so C<$-[1]> is the offset where $1
561 begins, C<$-[2]> the offset where $2 begins, and so on.
563 After a match against some variable $var:
567 =item C<$`> is the same as C<substr($var, 0, $-[0])>
569 =item C<$&> is the same as C<substr($var, $-[0], $+[0] - $-[0])>
571 =item C<$'> is the same as C<substr($var, $+[0])>
573 =item C<$1> is the same as C<substr($var, $-[1], $+[1] - $-[1])>
575 =item C<$2> is the same as C<substr($var, $-[2], $+[2] - $-[2])>
577 =item C<$3> is the same as C<substr $var, $-[3], $+[3] - $-[3])>
581 =item HANDLE->format_name(EXPR)
587 The name of the current report format for the currently selected output
588 channel. Default is the name of the filehandle. (Mnemonic: brother to
591 =item HANDLE->format_top_name(EXPR)
593 =item $FORMAT_TOP_NAME
597 The name of the current top-of-page format for the currently selected
598 output channel. Default is the name of the filehandle with _TOP
599 appended. (Mnemonic: points to top of page.)
601 =item IO::Handle->format_line_break_characters EXPR
603 =item $FORMAT_LINE_BREAK_CHARACTERS
607 The current set of characters after which a string may be broken to
608 fill continuation fields (starting with ^) in a format. Default is
609 S<" \n-">, to break on whitespace or hyphens. (Mnemonic: a "colon" in
610 poetry is a part of a line.)
612 =item IO::Handle->format_formfeed EXPR
614 =item $FORMAT_FORMFEED
618 What formats output as a form feed. Default is \f.
624 The current value of the write() accumulator for format() lines. A format
625 contains formline() calls that put their result into C<$^A>. After
626 calling its format, write() prints out the contents of C<$^A> and empties.
627 So you never really see the contents of C<$^A> unless you call
628 formline() yourself and then look at it. See L<perlform> and
629 L<perlfunc/formline()>.
635 The status returned by the last pipe close, backtick (C<``>) command,
636 successful call to wait() or waitpid(), or from the system()
637 operator. This is just the 16-bit status word returned by the
638 wait() system call (or else is made up to look like it). Thus, the
639 exit value of the subprocess is really (C<<< $? >> 8 >>>), and
640 C<$? & 127> gives which signal, if any, the process died from, and
641 C<$? & 128> reports whether there was a core dump. (Mnemonic:
642 similar to B<sh> and B<ksh>.)
644 Additionally, if the C<h_errno> variable is supported in C, its value
645 is returned via $? if any C<gethost*()> function fails.
647 If you have installed a signal handler for C<SIGCHLD>, the
648 value of C<$?> will usually be wrong outside that handler.
650 Inside an C<END> subroutine C<$?> contains the value that is going to be
651 given to C<exit()>. You can modify C<$?> in an C<END> subroutine to
652 change the exit status of your program. For example:
655 $? = 1 if $? == 255; # die would make it 255
658 Under VMS, the pragma C<use vmsish 'status'> makes C<$?> reflect the
659 actual VMS exit status, instead of the default emulation of POSIX
660 status; see L<perlvms/$?> for details.
662 Also see L<Error Indicators>.
666 The encoding used to interpret native eight-bit encodings to Unicode,
667 see L<encode>. An opaque C<Encode::XS> object.
675 If used numerically, yields the current value of the C C<errno>
676 variable, or in other words, if a system or library call fails, it
677 sets this variable. This means that the value of C<$!> is meaningful
678 only I<immediately> after a B<failure>:
680 if (open(FH, $filename)) {
681 # Here $! is meaningless.
684 # ONLY here is $! meaningful.
686 # Already here $! might be meaningless.
688 # Since here we might have either success or failure,
689 # here $! is meaningless.
691 In the above I<meaningless> stands for anything: zero, non-zero,
692 C<undef>. A successful system or library call does B<not> set
693 the variable to zero.
695 If used an a string, yields the corresponding system error string.
696 You can assign a number to C<$!> to set I<errno> if, for instance,
697 you want C<"$!"> to return the string for error I<n>, or you want
698 to set the exit value for the die() operator. (Mnemonic: What just
701 Also see L<Error Indicators>.
705 Each element of C<%!> has a true value only if C<$!> is set to that
706 value. For example, C<$!{ENOENT}> is true if and only if the current
707 value of C<$!> is C<ENOENT>; that is, if the most recent error was
708 "No such file or directory" (or its moral equivalent: not all operating
709 systems give that exact error, and certainly not all languages).
710 To check if a particular key is meaningful on your system, use
711 C<exists $!{the_key}>; for a list of legal keys, use C<keys %!>.
712 See L<Errno> for more information, and also see above for the
715 =item $EXTENDED_OS_ERROR
719 Error information specific to the current operating system. At
720 the moment, this differs from C<$!> under only VMS, OS/2, and Win32
721 (and for MacPerl). On all other platforms, C<$^E> is always just
724 Under VMS, C<$^E> provides the VMS status value from the last
725 system error. This is more specific information about the last
726 system error than that provided by C<$!>. This is particularly
727 important when C<$!> is set to B<EVMSERR>.
729 Under OS/2, C<$^E> is set to the error code of the last call to
730 OS/2 API either via CRT, or directly from perl.
732 Under Win32, C<$^E> always returns the last error information
733 reported by the Win32 call C<GetLastError()> which describes
734 the last error from within the Win32 API. Most Win32-specific
735 code will report errors via C<$^E>. ANSI C and Unix-like calls
736 set C<errno> and so most portable Perl code will report errors
739 Caveats mentioned in the description of C<$!> generally apply to
740 C<$^E>, also. (Mnemonic: Extra error explanation.)
742 Also see L<Error Indicators>.
748 The Perl syntax error message from the last eval() operator.
749 If $@ is the null string, the last eval() parsed and executed
750 correctly (although the operations you invoked may have failed in the
751 normal fashion). (Mnemonic: Where was the syntax error "at"?)
753 Warning messages are not collected in this variable. You can,
754 however, set up a routine to process warnings by setting C<$SIG{__WARN__}>
757 Also see L<Error Indicators>.
765 The process number of the Perl running this script. You should
766 consider this variable read-only, although it will be altered
767 across fork() calls. (Mnemonic: same as shells.)
775 The real uid of this process. (Mnemonic: it's the uid you came I<from>,
776 if you're running setuid.) You can change both the real uid and
777 the effective uid at the same time by using POSIX::setuid().
779 =item $EFFECTIVE_USER_ID
785 The effective uid of this process. Example:
787 $< = $>; # set real to effective uid
788 ($<,$>) = ($>,$<); # swap real and effective uid
790 You can change both the effective uid and the real uid at the same
791 time by using POSIX::setuid().
793 (Mnemonic: it's the uid you went I<to>, if you're running setuid.)
794 C<< $< >> and C<< $> >> can be swapped only on machines
795 supporting setreuid().
803 The real gid of this process. If you are on a machine that supports
804 membership in multiple groups simultaneously, gives a space separated
805 list of groups you are in. The first number is the one returned by
806 getgid(), and the subsequent ones by getgroups(), one of which may be
807 the same as the first number.
809 However, a value assigned to C<$(> must be a single number used to
810 set the real gid. So the value given by C<$(> should I<not> be assigned
811 back to C<$(> without being forced numeric, such as by adding zero.
813 You can change both the real gid and the effective gid at the same
814 time by using POSIX::setgid().
816 (Mnemonic: parentheses are used to I<group> things. The real gid is the
817 group you I<left>, if you're running setgid.)
819 =item $EFFECTIVE_GROUP_ID
825 The effective gid of this process. If you are on a machine that
826 supports membership in multiple groups simultaneously, gives a space
827 separated list of groups you are in. The first number is the one
828 returned by getegid(), and the subsequent ones by getgroups(), one of
829 which may be the same as the first number.
831 Similarly, a value assigned to C<$)> must also be a space-separated
832 list of numbers. The first number sets the effective gid, and
833 the rest (if any) are passed to setgroups(). To get the effect of an
834 empty list for setgroups(), just repeat the new effective gid; that is,
835 to force an effective gid of 5 and an effectively empty setgroups()
836 list, say C< $) = "5 5" >.
838 You can change both the effective gid and the real gid at the same
839 time by using POSIX::setgid() (use only a single numeric argument).
841 (Mnemonic: parentheses are used to I<group> things. The effective gid
842 is the group that's I<right> for you, if you're running setgid.)
844 C<< $< >>, C<< $> >>, C<$(> and C<$)> can be set only on
845 machines that support the corresponding I<set[re][ug]id()> routine. C<$(>
846 and C<$)> can be swapped only on machines supporting setregid().
852 Contains the name of the program being executed. On some operating
853 systems assigning to C<$0> modifies the argument area that the B<ps>
854 program sees. This is more useful as a way of indicating the current
855 program state than it is for hiding the program you're running.
856 (Mnemonic: same as B<sh> and B<ksh>.)
858 Note for BSD users: setting C<$0> does not completely remove "perl"
859 from the ps(1) output. For example, setting C<$0> to C<"foobar"> will
860 result in C<"perl: foobar (perl)">. This is an operating system
865 The index of the first element in an array, and of the first character
866 in a substring. Default is 0, but you could theoretically set it
867 to 1 to make Perl behave more like B<awk> (or Fortran) when
868 subscripting and when evaluating the index() and substr() functions.
869 (Mnemonic: [ begins subscripts.)
871 As of release 5 of Perl, assignment to C<$[> is treated as a compiler
872 directive, and cannot influence the behavior of any other file.
873 Its use is highly discouraged.
877 The version + patchlevel / 1000 of the Perl interpreter. This variable
878 can be used to determine whether the Perl interpreter executing a
879 script is in the right range of versions. (Mnemonic: Is this version
880 of perl in the right bracket?) Example:
882 warn "No checksumming!\n" if $] < 3.019;
884 See also the documentation of C<use VERSION> and C<require VERSION>
885 for a convenient way to fail if the running Perl interpreter is too old.
887 The floating point representation can sometimes lead to inaccurate
888 numeric comparisons. See C<$^V> for a more modern representation of
889 the Perl version that allows accurate string comparisons.
895 The current value of the flag associated with the B<-c> switch.
896 Mainly of use with B<-MO=...> to allow code to alter its behavior
897 when being compiled, such as for example to AUTOLOAD at compile
898 time rather than normal, deferred loading. See L<perlcc>. Setting
899 C<$^C = 1> is similar to calling C<B::minus_c>.
905 The current value of the debugging flags. (Mnemonic: value of B<-D>
912 The maximum system file descriptor, ordinarily 2. System file
913 descriptors are passed to exec()ed processes, while higher file
914 descriptors are not. Also, during an open(), system file descriptors are
915 preserved even if the open() fails. (Ordinary file descriptors are
916 closed before the open() is attempted.) The close-on-exec
917 status of a file descriptor will be decided according to the value of
918 C<$^F> when the corresponding file, pipe, or socket was opened, not the
923 WARNING: This variable is strictly for internal use only. Its availability,
924 behavior, and contents are subject to change without notice.
926 This variable contains compile-time hints for the Perl interpreter. At the
927 end of compilation of a BLOCK the value of this variable is restored to the
928 value when the interpreter started to compile the BLOCK.
930 When perl begins to parse any block construct that provides a lexical scope
931 (e.g., eval body, required file, subroutine body, loop body, or conditional
932 block), the existing value of $^H is saved, but its value is left unchanged.
933 When the compilation of the block is completed, it regains the saved value.
934 Between the points where its value is saved and restored, code that
935 executes within BEGIN blocks is free to change the value of $^H.
937 This behavior provides the semantic of lexical scoping, and is used in,
938 for instance, the C<use strict> pragma.
940 The contents should be an integer; different bits of it are used for
941 different pragmatic flags. Here's an example:
943 sub add_100 { $^H |= 0x100 }
950 Consider what happens during execution of the BEGIN block. At this point
951 the BEGIN block has already been compiled, but the body of foo() is still
952 being compiled. The new value of $^H will therefore be visible only while
953 the body of foo() is being compiled.
955 Substitution of the above BEGIN block with:
957 BEGIN { require strict; strict->import('vars') }
959 demonstrates how C<use strict 'vars'> is implemented. Here's a conditional
960 version of the same lexical pragma:
962 BEGIN { require strict; strict->import('vars') if $condition }
966 WARNING: This variable is strictly for internal use only. Its availability,
967 behavior, and contents are subject to change without notice.
969 The %^H hash provides the same scoping semantic as $^H. This makes it
970 useful for implementation of lexically scoped pragmas.
976 The current value of the inplace-edit extension. Use C<undef> to disable
977 inplace editing. (Mnemonic: value of B<-i> switch.)
981 By default, running out of memory is an untrappable, fatal error.
982 However, if suitably built, Perl can use the contents of C<$^M>
983 as an emergency memory pool after die()ing. Suppose that your Perl
984 were compiled with -DPERL_EMERGENCY_SBRK and used Perl's malloc.
987 $^M = 'a' x (1 << 16);
989 would allocate a 64K buffer for use in an emergency. See the
990 F<INSTALL> file in the Perl distribution for information on how to
991 enable this option. To discourage casual use of this advanced
992 feature, there is no L<English|English> long name for this variable.
998 The name of the operating system under which this copy of Perl was
999 built, as determined during the configuration process. The value
1000 is identical to C<$Config{'osname'}>. See also L<Config> and the
1001 B<-V> command-line switch documented in L<perlrun>.
1005 An internal variable used by PerlIO. A string in two parts, separated
1006 by a C<\0> byte, the first part is the input disciplines, the second
1007 part is the output disciplines.
1013 The internal variable for debugging support. The meanings of the
1014 various bits are subject to change, but currently indicate:
1020 Debug subroutine enter/exit.
1024 Line-by-line debugging.
1028 Switch off optimizations.
1032 Preserve more data for future interactive inspections.
1036 Keep info about source lines on which a subroutine is defined.
1040 Start with single-step on.
1044 Use subroutine address instead of name when reporting.
1048 Report C<goto &subroutine> as well.
1052 Provide informative "file" names for evals based on the place they were compiled.
1056 Provide informative names to anonymous subroutines based on the place they
1061 Some bits may be relevant at compile-time only, some at
1062 run-time only. This is a new mechanism and the details may change.
1064 =item $LAST_REGEXP_CODE_RESULT
1068 The result of evaluation of the last successful C<(?{ code })>
1069 regular expression assertion (see L<perlre>). May be written to.
1071 =item $EXCEPTIONS_BEING_CAUGHT
1075 Current state of the interpreter. Undefined if parsing of the current
1076 module/eval is not finished (may happen in $SIG{__DIE__} and
1077 $SIG{__WARN__} handlers). True if inside an eval(), otherwise false.
1083 The time at which the program began running, in seconds since the
1084 epoch (beginning of 1970). The values returned by the B<-M>, B<-A>,
1085 and B<-C> filetests are based on this value.
1089 Reflects if taint mode is on or off (i.e. if the program was run with
1090 B<-T> or not). True for on, false for off.
1096 The revision, version, and subversion of the Perl interpreter, represented
1097 as a string composed of characters with those ordinals. Thus in Perl v5.6.0
1098 it equals C<chr(5) . chr(6) . chr(0)> and will return true for
1099 C<$^V eq v5.6.0>. Note that the characters in this string value can
1100 potentially be in Unicode range.
1102 This can be used to determine whether the Perl interpreter executing a
1103 script is in the right range of versions. (Mnemonic: use ^V for Version
1106 warn "No \"our\" declarations!\n" if $^V and $^V lt v5.6.0;
1108 To convert C<$^V> into its string representation use sprintf()'s
1109 C<"%vd"> conversion:
1111 printf "version is v%vd\n", $^V; # Perl's version
1113 See the documentation of C<use VERSION> and C<require VERSION>
1114 for a convenient way to fail if the running Perl interpreter is too old.
1116 See also C<$]> for an older representation of the Perl version.
1122 The current value of the warning switch, initially true if B<-w>
1123 was used, false otherwise, but directly modifiable. (Mnemonic:
1124 related to the B<-w> switch.) See also L<warnings>.
1126 =item ${^WARNING_BITS}
1128 The current set of warning checks enabled by the C<use warnings> pragma.
1129 See the documentation of C<warnings> for more details.
1131 =item ${^WIDE_SYSTEM_CALLS}
1133 Global flag that enables system calls made by Perl to use wide character
1134 APIs native to the system, if available. This is currently only implemented
1135 on the Windows platform.
1137 This can also be enabled from the command line using the C<-C> switch.
1139 The initial value is typically C<0> for compatibility with Perl versions
1140 earlier than 5.6, but may be automatically set to C<1> by Perl if the system
1141 provides a user-settable default (e.g., C<$ENV{LC_CTYPE}>).
1143 The C<bytes> pragma always overrides the effect of this flag in the current
1144 lexical scope. See L<bytes>.
1146 =item $EXECUTABLE_NAME
1150 The name that the Perl binary itself was executed as, from C's C<argv[0]>.
1151 This may not be a full pathname, nor even necessarily in your path.
1155 The special filehandle that iterates over command-line filenames in
1156 C<@ARGV>. Usually written as the null filehandle in the angle operator
1157 C<< <> >>. Note that currently C<ARGV> only has its magical effect
1158 within the C<< <> >> operator; elsewhere it is just a plain filehandle
1159 corresponding to the last file opened by C<< <> >>. In particular,
1160 passing C<\*ARGV> as a parameter to a function that expects a filehandle
1161 may not cause your function to automatically read the contents of all the
1166 contains the name of the current file when reading from <>.
1170 The array @ARGV contains the command-line arguments intended for
1171 the script. C<$#ARGV> is generally the number of arguments minus
1172 one, because C<$ARGV[0]> is the first argument, I<not> the program's
1173 command name itself. See C<$0> for the command name.
1177 The array @F contains the fields of each line read in when autosplit
1178 mode is turned on. See L<perlrun> for the B<-a> switch. This array
1179 is package-specific, and must be declared or given a full package name
1180 if not in package main when running under C<strict 'vars'>.
1184 The array @INC contains the list of places that the C<do EXPR>,
1185 C<require>, or C<use> constructs look for their library files. It
1186 initially consists of the arguments to any B<-I> command-line
1187 switches, followed by the default Perl library, probably
1188 F</usr/local/lib/perl>, followed by ".", to represent the current
1189 directory. ("." will not be appended if taint checks are enabled, either by
1190 C<-T> or by C<-t>.) If you need to modify this at runtime, you should use
1191 the C<use lib> pragma to get the machine-dependent library properly
1194 use lib '/mypath/libdir/';
1197 You can also insert hooks into the file inclusion system by putting Perl
1198 code directly into @INC. Those hooks may be subroutine references, array
1199 references or blessed objects. See L<perlfunc/require> for details.
1203 Within a subroutine the array @_ contains the parameters passed to that
1204 subroutine. See L<perlsub>.
1208 The hash %INC contains entries for each filename included via the
1209 C<do>, C<require>, or C<use> operators. The key is the filename
1210 you specified (with module names converted to pathnames), and the
1211 value is the location of the file found. The C<require>
1212 operator uses this hash to determine whether a particular file has
1213 already been included.
1215 If the file was loaded via a hook (e.g. a subroutine reference, see
1216 L<perlfunc/require> for a description of these hooks), this hook is
1217 by default inserted into %INC in place of a filename. Note, however,
1218 that the hook may have set the %INC entry by itself to provide some more
1225 The hash %ENV contains your current environment. Setting a
1226 value in C<ENV> changes the environment for any child processes
1227 you subsequently fork() off.
1233 The hash %SIG contains signal handlers for signals. For example:
1235 sub handler { # 1st argument is signal name
1237 print "Caught a SIG$sig--shutting down\n";
1242 $SIG{'INT'} = \&handler;
1243 $SIG{'QUIT'} = \&handler;
1245 $SIG{'INT'} = 'DEFAULT'; # restore default action
1246 $SIG{'QUIT'} = 'IGNORE'; # ignore SIGQUIT
1248 Using a value of C<'IGNORE'> usually has the effect of ignoring the
1249 signal, except for the C<CHLD> signal. See L<perlipc> for more about
1252 Here are some other examples:
1254 $SIG{"PIPE"} = "Plumber"; # assumes main::Plumber (not recommended)
1255 $SIG{"PIPE"} = \&Plumber; # just fine; assume current Plumber
1256 $SIG{"PIPE"} = *Plumber; # somewhat esoteric
1257 $SIG{"PIPE"} = Plumber(); # oops, what did Plumber() return??
1259 Be sure not to use a bareword as the name of a signal handler,
1260 lest you inadvertently call it.
1262 If your system has the sigaction() function then signal handlers are
1263 installed using it. This means you get reliable signal handling. If
1264 your system has the SA_RESTART flag it is used when signals handlers are
1265 installed. This means that system calls for which restarting is supported
1266 continue rather than returning when a signal arrives. If you want your
1267 system calls to be interrupted by signal delivery then do something like
1270 use POSIX ':signal_h';
1273 sigaction SIGALRM, new POSIX::SigAction sub { $alarm = 1 }
1274 or die "Error setting SIGALRM handler: $!\n";
1278 Certain internal hooks can be also set using the %SIG hash. The
1279 routine indicated by C<$SIG{__WARN__}> is called when a warning message is
1280 about to be printed. The warning message is passed as the first
1281 argument. The presence of a __WARN__ hook causes the ordinary printing
1282 of warnings to STDERR to be suppressed. You can use this to save warnings
1283 in a variable, or turn warnings into fatal errors, like this:
1285 local $SIG{__WARN__} = sub { die $_[0] };
1288 The routine indicated by C<$SIG{__DIE__}> is called when a fatal exception
1289 is about to be thrown. The error message is passed as the first
1290 argument. When a __DIE__ hook routine returns, the exception
1291 processing continues as it would have in the absence of the hook,
1292 unless the hook routine itself exits via a C<goto>, a loop exit, or a die().
1293 The C<__DIE__> handler is explicitly disabled during the call, so that you
1294 can die from a C<__DIE__> handler. Similarly for C<__WARN__>.
1296 Due to an implementation glitch, the C<$SIG{__DIE__}> hook is called
1297 even inside an eval(). Do not use this to rewrite a pending exception
1298 in C<$@>, or as a bizarre substitute for overriding CORE::GLOBAL::die().
1299 This strange action at a distance may be fixed in a future release
1300 so that C<$SIG{__DIE__}> is only called if your program is about
1301 to exit, as was the original intent. Any other use is deprecated.
1303 C<__DIE__>/C<__WARN__> handlers are very special in one respect:
1304 they may be called to report (probable) errors found by the parser.
1305 In such a case the parser may be in inconsistent state, so any
1306 attempt to evaluate Perl code from such a handler will probably
1307 result in a segfault. This means that warnings or errors that
1308 result from parsing Perl should be used with extreme caution, like
1311 require Carp if defined $^S;
1312 Carp::confess("Something wrong") if defined &Carp::confess;
1313 die "Something wrong, but could not load Carp to give backtrace...
1314 To see backtrace try starting Perl with -MCarp switch";
1316 Here the first line will load Carp I<unless> it is the parser who
1317 called the handler. The second line will print backtrace and die if
1318 Carp was available. The third line will be executed only if Carp was
1321 See L<perlfunc/die>, L<perlfunc/warn>, L<perlfunc/eval>, and
1322 L<warnings> for additional information.
1326 =head2 Error Indicators
1328 The variables C<$@>, C<$!>, C<$^E>, and C<$?> contain information
1329 about different types of error conditions that may appear during
1330 execution of a Perl program. The variables are shown ordered by
1331 the "distance" between the subsystem which reported the error and
1332 the Perl process. They correspond to errors detected by the Perl
1333 interpreter, C library, operating system, or an external program,
1336 To illustrate the differences between these variables, consider the
1337 following Perl expression, which uses a single-quoted string:
1340 open my $pipe, "/cdrom/install |" or die $!;
1342 close $pipe or die "bad pipe: $?, $!";
1345 After execution of this statement all 4 variables may have been set.
1347 C<$@> is set if the string to be C<eval>-ed did not compile (this
1348 may happen if C<open> or C<close> were imported with bad prototypes),
1349 or if Perl code executed during evaluation die()d . In these cases
1350 the value of $@ is the compile error, or the argument to C<die>
1351 (which will interpolate C<$!> and C<$?>!). (See also L<Fatal>,
1354 When the eval() expression above is executed, open(), C<< <PIPE> >>,
1355 and C<close> are translated to calls in the C run-time library and
1356 thence to the operating system kernel. C<$!> is set to the C library's
1357 C<errno> if one of these calls fails.
1359 Under a few operating systems, C<$^E> may contain a more verbose
1360 error indicator, such as in this case, "CDROM tray not closed."
1361 Systems that do not support extended error messages leave C<$^E>
1364 Finally, C<$?> may be set to non-0 value if the external program
1365 F</cdrom/install> fails. The upper eight bits reflect specific
1366 error conditions encountered by the program (the program's exit()
1367 value). The lower eight bits reflect mode of failure, like signal
1368 death and core dump information See wait(2) for details. In
1369 contrast to C<$!> and C<$^E>, which are set only if error condition
1370 is detected, the variable C<$?> is set on each C<wait> or pipe
1371 C<close>, overwriting the old value. This is more like C<$@>, which
1372 on every eval() is always set on failure and cleared on success.
1374 For more details, see the individual descriptions at C<$@>, C<$!>, C<$^E>,
1377 =head2 Technical Note on the Syntax of Variable Names
1379 Variable names in Perl can have several formats. Usually, they
1380 must begin with a letter or underscore, in which case they can be
1381 arbitrarily long (up to an internal limit of 251 characters) and
1382 may contain letters, digits, underscores, or the special sequence
1383 C<::> or C<'>. In this case, the part before the last C<::> or
1384 C<'> is taken to be a I<package qualifier>; see L<perlmod>.
1386 Perl variable names may also be a sequence of digits or a single
1387 punctuation or control character. These names are all reserved for
1388 special uses by Perl; for example, the all-digits names are used
1389 to hold data captured by backreferences after a regular expression
1390 match. Perl has a special syntax for the single-control-character
1391 names: It understands C<^X> (caret C<X>) to mean the control-C<X>
1392 character. For example, the notation C<$^W> (dollar-sign caret
1393 C<W>) is the scalar variable whose name is the single character
1394 control-C<W>. This is better than typing a literal control-C<W>
1397 Finally, new in Perl 5.6, Perl variable names may be alphanumeric
1398 strings that begin with control characters (or better yet, a caret).
1399 These variables must be written in the form C<${^Foo}>; the braces
1400 are not optional. C<${^Foo}> denotes the scalar variable whose
1401 name is a control-C<F> followed by two C<o>'s. These variables are
1402 reserved for future special uses by Perl, except for the ones that
1403 begin with C<^_> (control-underscore or caret-underscore). No
1404 control-character name that begins with C<^_> will acquire a special
1405 meaning in any future version of Perl; such names may therefore be
1406 used safely in programs. C<$^_> itself, however, I<is> reserved.
1408 Perl identifiers that begin with digits, control characters, or
1409 punctuation characters are exempt from the effects of the C<package>
1410 declaration and are always forced to be in package C<main>. A few
1411 other names are also exempt:
1419 In particular, the new special C<${^_XYZ}> variables are always taken
1420 to be in package C<main>, regardless of any C<package> declarations
1425 Due to an unfortunate accident of Perl's implementation, C<use
1426 English> imposes a considerable performance penalty on all regular
1427 expression matches in a program, regardless of whether they occur
1428 in the scope of C<use English>. For that reason, saying C<use
1429 English> in libraries is strongly discouraged. See the
1430 Devel::SawAmpersand module documentation from CPAN
1431 ( http://www.cpan.org/modules/by-module/Devel/ )
1432 for more information.
1434 Having to even think about the C<$^S> variable in your exception
1435 handlers is simply wrong. C<$SIG{__DIE__}> as currently implemented
1436 invites grievous and difficult to track down errors. Avoid it
1437 and use an C<END{}> or CORE::GLOBAL::die override instead.