7 A Perl script consists of a sequence of declarations and statements.
8 The only things that need to be declared in Perl are report formats
9 and subroutines. See the sections below for more information on those
10 declarations. All uninitialized user-created objects are assumed to
11 start with a C<null> or C<0> value until they are defined by some explicit
12 operation such as assignment. (Though you can get warnings about the
13 use of undefined values if you like.) The sequence of statements is
14 executed just once, unlike in B<sed> and B<awk> scripts, where the
15 sequence of statements is executed for each input line. While this means
16 that you must explicitly loop over the lines of your input file (or
17 files), it also means you have much more control over which files and
18 which lines you look at. (Actually, I'm lying--it is possible to do an
19 implicit loop with either the B<-n> or B<-p> switch. It's just not the
20 mandatory default like it is in B<sed> and B<awk>.)
24 Perl is, for the most part, a free-form language. (The only exception
25 to this is format declarations, for obvious reasons.) Text from a
26 C<"#"> character until the end of the line is a comment, and is
27 ignored. If you attempt to use C</* */> C-style comments, it will be
28 interpreted either as division or pattern matching, depending on the
29 context, and C++ C<//> comments just look like a null regular
30 expression, so don't do that.
32 A declaration can be put anywhere a statement can, but has no effect on
33 the execution of the primary sequence of statements--declarations all
34 take effect at compile time. Typically all the declarations are put at
35 the beginning or the end of the script. However, if you're using
36 lexically-scoped private variables created with C<my()>, you'll have to make sure
37 your format or subroutine definition is within the same block scope
38 as the my if you expect to be able to access those private variables.
40 Declaring a subroutine allows a subroutine name to be used as if it were a
41 list operator from that point forward in the program. You can declare a
42 subroutine without defining it by saying C<sub name>, thus:
45 $me = myname $0 or die "can't get myname";
47 Note that my() functions as a list operator, not as a unary operator; so
48 be careful to use C<or> instead of C<||> in this case. However, if
49 you were to declare the subroutine as C<sub myname ($)>, then
50 C<myname> would function as a unary operator, so either C<or> or
53 Subroutines declarations can also be loaded up with the C<require> statement
54 or both loaded and imported into your namespace with a C<use> statement.
55 See L<perlmod> for details on this.
57 A statement sequence may contain declarations of lexically-scoped
58 variables, but apart from declaring a variable name, the declaration acts
59 like an ordinary statement, and is elaborated within the sequence of
60 statements as if it were an ordinary statement. That means it actually
61 has both compile-time and run-time effects.
63 =head2 Simple statements
65 The only kind of simple statement is an expression evaluated for its
66 side effects. Every simple statement must be terminated with a
67 semicolon, unless it is the final statement in a block, in which case
68 the semicolon is optional. (A semicolon is still encouraged there if the
69 block takes up more than one line, because you may eventually add another line.)
70 Note that there are some operators like C<eval {}> and C<do {}> that look
71 like compound statements, but aren't (they're just TERMs in an expression),
72 and thus need an explicit termination if used as the last item in a statement.
74 Any simple statement may optionally be followed by a I<SINGLE> modifier,
75 just before the terminating semicolon (or block ending). The possible
84 The C<if> and C<unless> modifiers have the expected semantics,
85 presuming you're a speaker of English. The C<foreach> modifier is an
86 iterator: For each value in EXPR, it aliases C<$_> to the value and
87 executes the statement. The C<while> and C<until> modifiers have the
88 usual "C<while> loop" semantics (conditional evaluated first), except
89 when applied to a C<do>-BLOCK (or to the deprecated C<do>-SUBROUTINE
90 statement), in which case the block executes once before the
91 conditional is evaluated. This is so that you can write loops like:
96 } until $line eq ".\n";
98 See L<perlfunc/do>. Note also that the loop control statements described
99 later will I<NOT> work in this construct, because modifiers don't take
100 loop labels. Sorry. You can always put another block inside of it
101 (for C<next>) or around it (for C<last>) to do that sort of thing.
102 For C<next>, just double the braces:
109 For C<last>, you have to be more elaborate:
118 =head2 Compound statements
120 In Perl, a sequence of statements that defines a scope is called a block.
121 Sometimes a block is delimited by the file containing it (in the case
122 of a required file, or the program as a whole), and sometimes a block
123 is delimited by the extent of a string (in the case of an eval).
125 But generally, a block is delimited by curly brackets, also known as braces.
126 We will call this syntactic construct a BLOCK.
128 The following compound statements may be used to control flow:
131 if (EXPR) BLOCK else BLOCK
132 if (EXPR) BLOCK elsif (EXPR) BLOCK ... else BLOCK
133 LABEL while (EXPR) BLOCK
134 LABEL while (EXPR) BLOCK continue BLOCK
135 LABEL for (EXPR; EXPR; EXPR) BLOCK
136 LABEL foreach VAR (LIST) BLOCK
137 LABEL foreach VAR (LIST) BLOCK continue BLOCK
138 LABEL BLOCK continue BLOCK
140 Note that, unlike C and Pascal, these are defined in terms of BLOCKs,
141 not statements. This means that the curly brackets are I<required>--no
142 dangling statements allowed. If you want to write conditionals without
143 curly brackets there are several other ways to do it. The following
144 all do the same thing:
146 if (!open(FOO)) { die "Can't open $FOO: $!"; }
147 die "Can't open $FOO: $!" unless open(FOO);
148 open(FOO) or die "Can't open $FOO: $!"; # FOO or bust!
149 open(FOO) ? 'hi mom' : die "Can't open $FOO: $!";
150 # a bit exotic, that last one
152 The C<if> statement is straightforward. Because BLOCKs are always
153 bounded by curly brackets, there is never any ambiguity about which
154 C<if> an C<else> goes with. If you use C<unless> in place of C<if>,
155 the sense of the test is reversed.
157 The C<while> statement executes the block as long as the expression is
158 true (does not evaluate to the null string C<""> or C<0> or C<"0">).
159 The LABEL is optional, and if present, consists of an identifier followed
160 by a colon. The LABEL identifies the loop for the loop control
161 statements C<next>, C<last>, and C<redo>.
162 If the LABEL is omitted, the loop control statement
163 refers to the innermost enclosing loop. This may include dynamically
164 looking back your call-stack at run time to find the LABEL. Such
165 desperate behavior triggers a warning if you use the B<-w> flag.
166 Unlike a C<foreach> statement, a C<while> statement never implicitly
167 localises any variables.
169 If there is a C<continue> BLOCK, it is always executed just before the
170 conditional is about to be evaluated again, just like the third part of a
171 C<for> loop in C. Thus it can be used to increment a loop variable, even
172 when the loop has been continued via the C<next> statement (which is
173 similar to the C C<continue> statement).
177 The C<next> command is like the C<continue> statement in C; it starts
178 the next iteration of the loop:
180 LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
181 next LINE if /^#/; # discard comments
185 The C<last> command is like the C<break> statement in C (as used in
186 loops); it immediately exits the loop in question. The
187 C<continue> block, if any, is not executed:
189 LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
190 last LINE if /^$/; # exit when done with header
194 The C<redo> command restarts the loop block without evaluating the
195 conditional again. The C<continue> block, if any, is I<not> executed.
196 This command is normally used by programs that want to lie to themselves
197 about what was just input.
199 For example, when processing a file like F</etc/termcap>.
200 If your input lines might end in backslashes to indicate continuation, you
201 want to skip ahead and get the next record.
212 which is Perl short-hand for the more explicitly written version:
214 LINE: while (defined($line = <ARGV>)) {
216 if ($line =~ s/\\$//) {
218 redo LINE unless eof(); # not eof(ARGV)!
223 Note that if there were a C<continue> block on the above code, it would get
224 executed even on discarded lines. This is often used to reset line counters
225 or C<?pat?> one-time matches.
227 # inspired by :1,$g/fred/s//WILMA/
229 ?(fred)? && s//WILMA $1 WILMA/;
230 ?(barney)? && s//BETTY $1 BETTY/;
231 ?(homer)? && s//MARGE $1 MARGE/;
233 print "$ARGV $.: $_";
234 close ARGV if eof(); # reset $.
235 reset if eof(); # reset ?pat?
238 If the word C<while> is replaced by the word C<until>, the sense of the
239 test is reversed, but the conditional is still tested before the first
242 The loop control statements don't work in an C<if> or C<unless>, since
243 they aren't loops. You can double the braces to make them such, though.
251 The form C<while/if BLOCK BLOCK>, available in Perl 4, is no longer
252 available. Replace any occurrence of C<if BLOCK> by C<if (do BLOCK)>.
256 Perl's C-style C<for> loop works exactly like the corresponding C<while> loop;
257 that means that this:
259 for ($i = 1; $i < 10; $i++) {
272 (There is one minor difference: The first form implies a lexical scope
273 for variables declared with C<my> in the initialization expression.)
275 Besides the normal array index looping, C<for> can lend itself
276 to many other interesting applications. Here's one that avoids the
277 problem you get into if you explicitly test for end-of-file on
278 an interactive file descriptor causing your program to appear to
281 $on_a_tty = -t STDIN && -t STDOUT;
282 sub prompt { print "yes? " if $on_a_tty }
283 for ( prompt(); <STDIN>; prompt() ) {
289 The C<foreach> loop iterates over a normal list value and sets the
290 variable VAR to be each element of the list in turn. If the variable
291 is preceded with the keyword C<my>, then it is lexically scoped, and
292 is therefore visible only within the loop. Otherwise, the variable is
293 implicitly local to the loop and regains its former value upon exiting
294 the loop. If the variable was previously declared with C<my>, it uses
295 that variable instead of the global one, but it's still localized to
298 The C<foreach> keyword is actually a synonym for the C<for> keyword, so
299 you can use C<foreach> for readability or C<for> for brevity. (Or because
300 the Bourne shell is more familiar to you than I<csh>, so writing C<for>
301 comes more naturally.) If VAR is omitted, C<$_> is set to each value.
302 If any element of LIST is an lvalue, you can modify it by modifying VAR
303 inside the loop. That's because the C<foreach> loop index variable is
304 an implicit alias for each item in the list that you're looping over.
306 If any part of LIST is an array, C<foreach> will get very confused if
307 you add or remove elements within the loop body, for example with
308 C<splice>. So don't do that.
310 C<foreach> probably won't do what you expect if VAR is a tied or other
311 special variable. Don't do that either.
315 for (@ary) { s/foo/bar/ }
317 foreach my $elem (@elements) {
321 for $count (10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1,'BOOM') {
322 print $count, "\n"; sleep(1);
325 for (1..15) { print "Merry Christmas\n"; }
327 foreach $item (split(/:[\\\n:]*/, $ENV{TERMCAP})) {
328 print "Item: $item\n";
331 Here's how a C programmer might code up a particular algorithm in Perl:
333 for (my $i = 0; $i < @ary1; $i++) {
334 for (my $j = 0; $j < @ary2; $j++) {
335 if ($ary1[$i] > $ary2[$j]) {
336 last; # can't go to outer :-(
338 $ary1[$i] += $ary2[$j];
340 # this is where that last takes me
343 Whereas here's how a Perl programmer more comfortable with the idiom might
346 OUTER: foreach my $wid (@ary1) {
347 INNER: foreach my $jet (@ary2) {
348 next OUTER if $wid > $jet;
353 See how much easier this is? It's cleaner, safer, and faster. It's
354 cleaner because it's less noisy. It's safer because if code gets added
355 between the inner and outer loops later on, the new code won't be
356 accidentally executed. The C<next> explicitly iterates the other loop
357 rather than merely terminating the inner one. And it's faster because
358 Perl executes a C<foreach> statement more rapidly than it would the
359 equivalent C<for> loop.
361 =head2 Basic BLOCKs and Switch Statements
363 A BLOCK by itself (labeled or not) is semantically equivalent to a
364 loop that executes once. Thus you can use any of the loop control
365 statements in it to leave or restart the block. (Note that this is
366 I<NOT> true in C<eval{}>, C<sub{}>, or contrary to popular belief
367 C<do{}> blocks, which do I<NOT> count as loops.) The C<continue>
370 The BLOCK construct is particularly nice for doing case
374 if (/^abc/) { $abc = 1; last SWITCH; }
375 if (/^def/) { $def = 1; last SWITCH; }
376 if (/^xyz/) { $xyz = 1; last SWITCH; }
380 There is no official C<switch> statement in Perl, because there are
381 already several ways to write the equivalent. In addition to the
382 above, you could write
385 $abc = 1, last SWITCH if /^abc/;
386 $def = 1, last SWITCH if /^def/;
387 $xyz = 1, last SWITCH if /^xyz/;
391 (That's actually not as strange as it looks once you realize that you can
392 use loop control "operators" within an expression, That's just the normal
398 /^abc/ && do { $abc = 1; last SWITCH; };
399 /^def/ && do { $def = 1; last SWITCH; };
400 /^xyz/ && do { $xyz = 1; last SWITCH; };
404 or formatted so it stands out more as a "proper" C<switch> statement:
427 /^abc/ and $abc = 1, last SWITCH;
428 /^def/ and $def = 1, last SWITCH;
429 /^xyz/ and $xyz = 1, last SWITCH;
444 A common idiom for a C<switch> statement is to use C<foreach>'s aliasing to make
445 a temporary assignment to C<$_> for convenient matching:
447 SWITCH: for ($where) {
448 /In Card Names/ && do { push @flags, '-e'; last; };
449 /Anywhere/ && do { push @flags, '-h'; last; };
450 /In Rulings/ && do { last; };
451 die "unknown value for form variable where: `$where'";
454 Another interesting approach to a switch statement is arrange
455 for a C<do> block to return the proper value:
458 if ($flag & O_RDONLY) { "r" } # XXX: isn't this 0?
459 elsif ($flag & O_WRONLY) { ($flag & O_APPEND) ? "a" : "w" }
460 elsif ($flag & O_RDWR) {
461 if ($flag & O_CREAT) { "w+" }
462 else { ($flag & O_APPEND) ? "a+" : "r+" }
469 ($flags & O_WRONLY) ? "write-only" :
470 ($flags & O_RDWR) ? "read-write" :
474 Or if you are certainly that all the C<&&> clauses are true, you can use
475 something like this, which "switches" on the value of the
476 C<HTTP_USER_AGENT> envariable.
479 # pick out jargon file page based on browser
480 $dir = 'http://www.wins.uva.nl/~mes/jargon';
481 for ($ENV{HTTP_USER_AGENT}) {
482 $page = /Mac/ && 'm/Macintrash.html'
483 || /Win(dows )?NT/ && 'e/evilandrude.html'
484 || /Win|MSIE|WebTV/ && 'm/MicroslothWindows.html'
485 || /Linux/ && 'l/Linux.html'
486 || /HP-UX/ && 'h/HP-SUX.html'
487 || /SunOS/ && 's/ScumOS.html'
488 || 'a/AppendixB.html';
490 print "Location: $dir/$page\015\012\015\012";
492 That kind of switch statement only works when you know the C<&&> clauses
493 will be true. If you don't, the previous C<?:> example should be used.
495 You might also consider writing a hash of subroutine references
496 instead of synthesizing a C<switch> statement.
500 Although not for the faint of heart, Perl does support a C<goto>
501 statement. There are three forms: C<goto>-LABEL, C<goto>-EXPR, and
502 C<goto>-&NAME. A loop's LABEL is not actually a valid target for
503 a C<goto>; it's just the name of the loop.
505 The C<goto>-LABEL form finds the statement labeled with LABEL and resumes
506 execution there. It may not be used to go into any construct that
507 requires initialization, such as a subroutine or a C<foreach> loop. It
508 also can't be used to go into a construct that is optimized away. It
509 can be used to go almost anywhere else within the dynamic scope,
510 including out of subroutines, but it's usually better to use some other
511 construct such as C<last> or C<die>. The author of Perl has never felt the
512 need to use this form of C<goto> (in Perl, that is--C is another matter).
514 The C<goto>-EXPR form expects a label name, whose scope will be resolved
515 dynamically. This allows for computed C<goto>s per FORTRAN, but isn't
516 necessarily recommended if you're optimizing for maintainability:
518 goto ("FOO", "BAR", "GLARCH")[$i];
520 The C<goto>-&NAME form is highly magical, and substitutes a call to the
521 named subroutine for the currently running subroutine. This is used by
522 C<AUTOLOAD()> subroutines that wish to load another subroutine and then
523 pretend that the other subroutine had been called in the first place
524 (except that any modifications to C<@_> in the current subroutine are
525 propagated to the other subroutine.) After the C<goto>, not even C<caller()>
526 will be able to tell that this routine was called first.
528 In almost all cases like this, it's usually a far, far better idea to use the
529 structured control flow mechanisms of C<next>, C<last>, or C<redo> instead of
530 resorting to a C<goto>. For certain applications, the catch and throw pair of
531 C<eval{}> and die() for exception processing can also be a prudent approach.
533 =head2 PODs: Embedded Documentation
535 Perl has a mechanism for intermixing documentation with source code.
536 While it's expecting the beginning of a new statement, if the compiler
537 encounters a line that begins with an equal sign and a word, like this
539 =head1 Here There Be Pods!
541 Then that text and all remaining text up through and including a line
542 beginning with C<=cut> will be ignored. The format of the intervening
543 text is described in L<perlpod>.
545 This allows you to intermix your source code
546 and your documentation text freely, as in
550 The snazzle() function will behave in the most spectacular
551 form that you can possibly imagine, not even excepting
552 cybernetic pyrotechnics.
554 =cut back to the compiler, nuff of this pod stuff!
561 Note that pod translators should look at only paragraphs beginning
562 with a pod directive (it makes parsing easier), whereas the compiler
563 actually knows to look for pod escapes even in the middle of a
564 paragraph. This means that the following secret stuff will be
565 ignored by both the compiler and the translators.
569 warn "Neither POD nor CODE!?"
573 You probably shouldn't rely upon the C<warn()> being podded out forever.
574 Not all pod translators are well-behaved in this regard, and perhaps
575 the compiler will become pickier.
577 One may also use pod directives to quickly comment out a section
580 =head2 Plain Old Comments (Not!)
582 Much like the C preprocessor, Perl can process line directives. Using
583 this, one can control Perl's idea of filenames and line numbers in
584 error or warning messages (especially for strings that are processed
585 with C<eval()>). The syntax for this mechanism is the same as for most
586 C preprocessors: it matches the regular expression
587 C</^#\s*line\s+(\d+)\s*(?:\s"([^"]*)")?/> with C<$1> being the line
588 number for the next line, and C<$2> being the optional filename
589 (specified within quotes).
591 Here are some examples that you should be able to type into your command
596 # the `#' on the previous line must be the first char on line
599 foo at bzzzt line 201.
603 eval qq[\n#line 2001 ""\ndie 'foo']; print $@;
608 eval qq[\n#line 200 "foo bar"\ndie 'foo']; print $@;
610 foo at foo bar line 200.
614 eval "\n#line " . __LINE__ . ' "' . __FILE__ ."\"\ndie 'foo'";
617 foo at goop line 345.