4 perlreftut - Mark's very short tutorial about references
8 One of the most important new features in Perl 5 was the capability to
9 manage complicated data structures like multidimensional arrays and
10 nested hashes. To enable these, Perl 5 introduced a feature called
11 `references', and using references is the key to managing complicated,
12 structured data in Perl. Unfortunately, there's a lot of funny syntax
13 to learn, and the main manual page can be hard to follow. The manual
14 is quite complete, and sometimes people find that a problem, because
15 it can be hard to tell what is important and what isn't.
17 Fortunately, you only need to know 10% of what's in the main page to get
18 90% of the benefit. This page will show you that 10%.
20 =head1 Who Needs Complicated Data Structures?
22 One problem that came up all the time in Perl 4 was how to represent a
23 hash whose values were lists. Perl 4 had hashes, of course, but the
24 values had to be scalars; they couldn't be lists.
26 Why would you want a hash of lists? Let's take a simple example: You
27 have a file of city and country names, like this:
36 and you want to produce an output like this, with each country mentioned
37 once, and then an alphabetical list of the cities in that country:
40 Germany: Berlin, Frankfurt.
41 USA: Chicago, New York, Washington.
43 The natural way to do this is to have a hash whose keys are country
44 names. Associated with each country name key is a list of the cities in
45 that country. Each time you read a line of input, split it into a country
46 and a city, look up the list of cities already known to be in that
47 country, and append the new city to the list. When you're done reading
48 the input, iterate over the hash as usual, sorting each list of cities
49 before you print it out.
51 If hash values can't be lists, you lose. In Perl 4, hash values can't
52 be lists; they can only be strings. You lose. You'd probably have to
53 combine all the cities into a single string somehow, and then when
54 time came to write the output, you'd have to break the string into a
55 list, sort the list, and turn it back into a string. This is messy
56 and error-prone. And it's frustrating, because Perl already has
57 perfectly good lists that would solve the problem if only you could
62 By the time Perl 5 rolled around, we were already stuck with this
63 design: Hash values must be scalars. The solution to this is
66 A reference is a scalar value that I<refers to> an entire array or an
67 entire hash (or to just about anything else). Names are one kind of
68 reference that you're already familiar with. Think of the President:
69 a messy, inconvenient bag of blood and bones. But to talk about him,
70 or to represent him in a computer program, all you need is the easy,
71 convenient scalar string "Bill Clinton".
73 References in Perl are like names for arrays and hashes. They're
74 Perl's private, internal names, so you can be sure they're
75 unambiguous. Unlike "Bill Clinton", a reference only refers to one
76 thing, and you always know what it refers to. If you have a reference
77 to an array, you can recover the entire array from it. If you have a
78 reference to a hash, you can recover the entire hash. But the
79 reference is still an easy, compact scalar value.
81 You can't have a hash whose values are arrays; hash values can only be
82 scalars. We're stuck with that. But a single reference can refer to
83 an entire array, and references are scalars, so you can have a hash of
84 references to arrays, and it'll act a lot like a hash of arrays, and
85 it'll be just as useful as a hash of arrays.
87 We'll come back to this city-country problem later, after we've seen
88 some syntax for managing references.
93 There are just two ways to make a reference, and just two ways to use
96 =head2 Making References
100 If you put a C<\> in front of a variable, you get a
101 reference to that variable.
103 $aref = \@array; # $aref now holds a reference to @array
104 $href = \%hash; # $href now holds a reference to %hash
106 Once the reference is stored in a variable like $aref or $href, you
107 can copy it or store it just the same as any other scalar value:
109 $xy = $aref; # $xy now holds a reference to @array
110 $p[3] = $href; # $p[3] now holds a reference to %hash
111 $z = $p[3]; # $z now holds a reference to %hash
114 These examples show how to make references to variables with names.
115 Sometimes you want to make an array or a hash that doesn't have a
116 name. This is analogous to the way you like to be able to use the
117 string C<"\n"> or the number 80 without having to store it in a named
122 C<[ ITEMS ]> makes a new, anonymous array, and returns a reference to
123 that array. C<{ ITEMS }> makes a new, anonymous hash. and returns a
124 reference to that hash.
126 $aref = [ 1, "foo", undef, 13 ];
127 # $aref now holds a reference to an array
129 $href = { APR => 4, AUG => 8 };
130 # $href now holds a reference to a hash
133 The references you get from rule 2 are the same kind of
134 references that you get from rule 1:
139 # Does the same as this:
144 The first line is an abbreviation for the following two lines, except
145 that it doesn't create the superfluous array variable C<@array>.
148 =head2 Using References
150 What can you do with a reference once you have it? It's a scalar
151 value, and we've seen that you can store it as a scalar and get it back
152 again just like any scalar. There are just two more ways to use it:
156 If C<$aref> contains a reference to an array, then you
157 can put C<{$aref}> anywhere you would normally put the name of an
158 array. For example, C<@{$aref}> instead of C<@array>.
160 Here are some examples of that:
166 reverse @a reverse @{$aref} Reverse the array
167 $a[3] ${$aref}[3] An element of the array
168 $a[3] = 17; ${$aref}[3] = 17 Assigning an element
171 On each line are two expressions that do the same thing. The
172 left-hand versions operate on the array C<@a>, and the right-hand
173 versions operate on the array that is referred to by C<$aref>, but
174 once they find the array they're operating on, they do the same things
177 Using a hash reference is I<exactly> the same:
180 keys %h keys %{$href} Get the keys from the hash
181 $h{'red'} ${$href}{'red'} An element of the hash
182 $h{'red'} = 17 ${$href}{'red'} = 17 Assigning an element
187 C<${$aref}[3]> is too hard to read, so you can write C<< $aref->[3] >>
190 C<${$href}{red}> is too hard to read, so you can write
191 C<< $href->{red} >> instead.
193 Most often, when you have an array or a hash, you want to get or set a
194 single element from it. C<${$aref}[3]> and C<${$href}{'red'}> have
195 too much punctuation, and Perl lets you abbreviate.
197 If C<$aref> holds a reference to an array, then C<< $aref->[3] >> is
198 the fourth element of the array. Don't confuse this with C<$aref[3]>,
199 which is the fourth element of a totally different array, one
200 deceptively named C<@aref>. C<$aref> and C<@aref> are unrelated the
201 same way that C<$item> and C<@item> are.
203 Similarly, C<< $href->{'red'} >> is part of the hash referred to by
204 the scalar variable C<$href>, perhaps even one with no name.
205 C<$href{'red'}> is part of the deceptively named C<%href> hash. It's
206 easy to forget to leave out the C<< -> >>, and if you do, you'll get
207 bizarre results when your program gets array and hash elements out of
208 totally unexpected hashes and arrays that weren't the ones you wanted
214 Let's see a quick example of how all this is useful.
216 First, remember that C<[1, 2, 3]> makes an anonymous array containing
217 C<(1, 2, 3)>, and gives you a reference to that array.
226 @a is an array with three elements, and each one is a reference to
229 C<$a[1]> is one of these references. It refers to an array, the array
230 containing C<(4, 5, 6)>, and because it is a reference to an array,
231 B<USE RULE 2> says that we can write C<< $a[1]->[2] >> to get the
232 third element from that array. C<< $a[1]->[2] >> is the 6.
233 Similarly, C<< $a[0]->[1] >> is the 2. What we have here is like a
234 two-dimensional array; you can write C<< $a[ROW]->[COLUMN] >> to get
235 or set the element in any row and any column of the array.
237 The notation still looks a little cumbersome, so there's one more
242 In between two B<subscripts>, the arrow is optional.
244 Instead of C<< $a[1]->[2] >>, we can write C<$a[1][2]>; it means the
245 same thing. Instead of C<< $a[0]->[1] >>, we can write C<$a[0][1]>;
246 it means the same thing.
248 Now it really looks like two-dimensional arrays!
250 You can see why the arrows are important. Without them, we would have
251 had to write C<${$a[1]}[2]> instead of C<$a[1][2]>. For
252 three-dimensional arrays, they let us write C<$x[2][3][5]> instead of
253 the unreadable C<${${$x[2]}[3]}[5]>.
258 Here's the answer to the problem I posed earlier, of reformatting a
259 file of city and country names.
263 3 my ($city, $country) = split /, /;
264 4 push @{$table{$country}}, $city;
267 7 foreach $country (sort keys %table) {
268 8 print "$country: ";
269 9 my @cities = @{$table{$country}};
270 10 print join ', ', sort @cities;
275 The program has two pieces: Lines 1--5 read the input and build a
276 data structure, and lines 7--12 analyze the data and print out the
279 In the first part, line 4 is the important one. We're going to have a
280 hash, C<%table>, whose keys are country names, and whose values are
281 (references to) arrays of city names. After acquiring a city and
282 country name, the program looks up C<$table{$country}>, which holds (a
283 reference to) the list of cities seen in that country so far. Line 4 is
288 except that the name C<array> has been replaced by the reference
289 C<{$table{$country}}>. The C<push> adds a city name to the end of the
292 In the second part, line 9 is the important one. Again,
293 C<$table{$country}> is (a reference to) the list of cities in the country, so
294 we can recover the original list, and copy it into the array C<@cities>,
295 by using C<@{$table{$country}}>. Line 9 is totally analogous to
299 except that the name C<array> has been replaced by the reference
300 C<{$table{$country}}>. The C<@> tells Perl to get the entire array.
302 The rest of the program is just familiar uses of C<chomp>, C<split>, C<sort>,
303 C<print>, and doesn't involve references at all.
305 There's one fine point I skipped. Suppose the program has just read
306 the first line in its input that happens to mention Greece.
307 Control is at line 4, C<$country> is C<'Greece'>, and C<$city> is
308 C<'Athens'>. Since this is the first city in Greece,
309 C<$table{$country}> is undefined---in fact there isn't an C<'Greece'> key
310 in C<%table> at all. What does line 4 do here?
312 4 push @{$table{$country}}, $city;
315 This is Perl, so it does the exact right thing. It sees that you want
316 to push C<Athens> onto an array that doesn't exist, so it helpfully
317 makes a new, empty, anonymous array for you, installs it in the table,
318 and then pushes C<Athens> onto it. This is called `autovivification'.
323 I promised to give you 90% of the benefit with 10% of the details, and
324 that means I left out 90% of the details. Now that you have an
325 overview of the important parts, it should be easier to read the
326 L<perlref> manual page, which discusses 100% of the details.
328 Some of the highlights of L<perlref>:
334 You can make references to anything, including scalars, functions, and
339 In B<USE RULE 1>, you can omit the curly brackets whenever the thing
340 inside them is an atomic scalar variable like C<$aref>. For example,
341 C<@$aref> is the same as C<@{$aref}>, and C<$$aref[1]> is the same as
342 C<${$aref}[1]>. If you're just starting out, you may want to adopt
343 the habit of always including the curly brackets.
347 To see if a variable contains a reference, use the `ref' function.
348 It returns true if its argument is a reference. Actually it's a
349 little better than that: It returns HASH for hash references and
350 ARRAY for array references.
354 If you try to use a reference like a string, you get strings like
356 ARRAY(0x80f5dec) or HASH(0x826afc0)
358 If you ever see a string that looks like this, you'll know you
359 printed out a reference by mistake.
361 A side effect of this representation is that you can use C<eq> to see
362 if two references refer to the same thing. (But you should usually use
363 C<==> instead because it's much faster.)
367 You can use a string as if it were a reference. If you use the string
368 C<"foo"> as an array reference, it's taken to be a reference to the
369 array C<@foo>. This is called a I<soft reference> or I<symbolic reference>.
373 You might prefer to go on to L<perllol> instead of L<perlref>; it
374 discusses lists of lists and multidimensional arrays in detail. After
375 that, you should move on to L<perldsc>; it's a Data Structure Cookbook
376 that shows recipes for using and printing out arrays of hashes, hashes
377 of arrays, and other kinds of data.
381 Everyone needs compound data structures, and in Perl the way you get
382 them is with references. There are four important rules for managing
383 references: Two for making references and two for using them. Once
384 you know these rules you can do most of the important things you need
385 to do with references.
389 Author: Mark-Jason Dominus, Plover Systems (C<mjd-perl-ref+@plover.com>)
391 This article originally appeared in I<The Perl Journal>
392 (http://tpj.com) volume 3, #2. Reprinted with permission.
394 The original title was I<Understand References Today>.
396 =head2 Distribution Conditions
398 Copyright 1998 The Perl Journal.
400 When included as part of the Standard Version of Perl, or as part of
401 its complete documentation whether printed or otherwise, this work may
402 be distributed only under the terms of Perl's Artistic License. Any
403 distribution of this file or derivatives thereof outside of that
404 package require that special arrangements be made with copyright
407 Irrespective of its distribution, all code examples in these files are
408 hereby placed into the public domain. You are permitted and
409 encouraged to use this code in your own programs for fun or for profit
410 as you see fit. A simple comment in the code giving credit would be
411 courteous but is not required.