3 perlguts - Perl's Internal Functions
7 This document attempts to describe some of the internal functions of the
8 Perl executable. It is far from complete and probably contains many errors.
9 Please refer any questions or comments to the author below.
15 Perl has three typedefs that handle Perl's three main data types:
21 Each typedef has specific routines that manipulate the various data types.
23 =head2 What is an "IV"?
25 Perl uses a special typedef IV which is a simple integer type that is
26 guaranteed to be large enough to hold a pointer (as well as an integer).
28 Perl also uses two special typedefs, I32 and I16, which will always be at
29 least 32-bits and 16-bits long, respectively.
31 =head2 Working with SVs
33 An SV can be created and loaded with one command. There are four types of
34 values that can be loaded: an integer value (IV), a double (NV), a string,
35 (PV), and another scalar (SV).
37 The five routines are:
41 SV* newSVpv(char*, int);
42 SV* newSVpvf(const char*, ...);
45 To change the value of an *already-existing* SV, there are six routines:
47 void sv_setiv(SV*, IV);
48 void sv_setnv(SV*, double);
49 void sv_setpv(SV*, char*);
50 void sv_setpvn(SV*, char*, int)
51 void sv_setpvf(SV*, const char*, ...);
52 void sv_setsv(SV*, SV*);
54 Notice that you can choose to specify the length of the string to be
55 assigned by using C<sv_setpvn> or C<newSVpv>, or you may allow Perl to
56 calculate the length by using C<sv_setpv> or by specifying 0 as the second
57 argument to C<newSVpv>. Be warned, though, that Perl will determine the
58 string's length by using C<strlen>, which depends on the string terminating
59 with a NUL character. The arguments of C<sv_setpvf> are processed like
60 C<sprintf>, and the formatted output becomes the value.
62 All SVs that will contain strings should, but need not, be terminated
63 with a NUL character. If it is not NUL-terminated there is a risk of
64 core dumps and corruptions from code which passes the string to C
65 functions or system calls which expect a NUL-terminated string.
66 Perl's own functions typically add a trailing NUL for this reason.
67 Nevertheless, you should be very careful when you pass a string stored
68 in an SV to a C function or system call.
70 To access the actual value that an SV points to, you can use the macros:
76 which will automatically coerce the actual scalar type into an IV, double,
79 In the C<SvPV> macro, the length of the string returned is placed into the
80 variable C<len> (this is a macro, so you do I<not> use C<&len>). If you do not
81 care what the length of the data is, use the global variable C<na>. Remember,
82 however, that Perl allows arbitrary strings of data that may both contain
83 NULs and might not be terminated by a NUL.
85 If you want to know if the scalar value is TRUE, you can use:
89 Although Perl will automatically grow strings for you, if you need to force
90 Perl to allocate more memory for your SV, you can use the macro
92 SvGROW(SV*, STRLEN newlen)
94 which will determine if more memory needs to be allocated. If so, it will
95 call the function C<sv_grow>. Note that C<SvGROW> can only increase, not
96 decrease, the allocated memory of an SV and that it does not automatically
97 add a byte for the a trailing NUL (perl's own string functions typically do
98 C<SvGROW(sv, len + 1)>).
100 If you have an SV and want to know what kind of data Perl thinks is stored
101 in it, you can use the following macros to check the type of SV you have.
107 You can get and set the current length of the string stored in an SV with
108 the following macros:
111 SvCUR_set(SV*, I32 val)
113 You can also get a pointer to the end of the string stored in the SV
118 But note that these last three macros are valid only if C<SvPOK()> is true.
120 If you want to append something to the end of string stored in an C<SV*>,
121 you can use the following functions:
123 void sv_catpv(SV*, char*);
124 void sv_catpvn(SV*, char*, int);
125 void sv_catpvf(SV*, const char*, ...);
126 void sv_catsv(SV*, SV*);
128 The first function calculates the length of the string to be appended by
129 using C<strlen>. In the second, you specify the length of the string
130 yourself. The third function processes its arguments like C<sprintf> and
131 appends the formatted output. The fourth function extends the string
132 stored in the first SV with the string stored in the second SV. It also
133 forces the second SV to be interpreted as a string.
135 If you know the name of a scalar variable, you can get a pointer to its SV
136 by using the following:
138 SV* perl_get_sv("package::varname", FALSE);
140 This returns NULL if the variable does not exist.
142 If you want to know if this variable (or any other SV) is actually C<defined>,
147 The scalar C<undef> value is stored in an SV instance called C<sv_undef>. Its
148 address can be used whenever an C<SV*> is needed.
150 There are also the two values C<sv_yes> and C<sv_no>, which contain Boolean
151 TRUE and FALSE values, respectively. Like C<sv_undef>, their addresses can
152 be used whenever an C<SV*> is needed.
154 Do not be fooled into thinking that C<(SV *) 0> is the same as C<&sv_undef>.
158 if (I-am-to-return-a-real-value) {
159 sv = sv_2mortal(newSViv(42));
163 This code tries to return a new SV (which contains the value 42) if it should
164 return a real value, or undef otherwise. Instead it has returned a null
165 pointer which, somewhere down the line, will cause a segmentation violation,
166 bus error, or just weird results. Change the zero to C<&sv_undef> in the first
167 line and all will be well.
169 To free an SV that you've created, call C<SvREFCNT_dec(SV*)>. Normally this
170 call is not necessary (see L<Reference Counts and Mortality>).
172 =head2 What's Really Stored in an SV?
174 Recall that the usual method of determining the type of scalar you have is
175 to use C<Sv*OK> macros. Because a scalar can be both a number and a string,
176 usually these macros will always return TRUE and calling the C<Sv*V>
177 macros will do the appropriate conversion of string to integer/double or
178 integer/double to string.
180 If you I<really> need to know if you have an integer, double, or string
181 pointer in an SV, you can use the following three macros instead:
187 These will tell you if you truly have an integer, double, or string pointer
188 stored in your SV. The "p" stands for private.
190 In general, though, it's best to use the C<Sv*V> macros.
192 =head2 Working with AVs
194 There are two ways to create and load an AV. The first method creates an
199 The second method both creates the AV and initially populates it with SVs:
201 AV* av_make(I32 num, SV **ptr);
203 The second argument points to an array containing C<num> C<SV*>'s. Once the
204 AV has been created, the SVs can be destroyed, if so desired.
206 Once the AV has been created, the following operations are possible on AVs:
208 void av_push(AV*, SV*);
211 void av_unshift(AV*, I32 num);
213 These should be familiar operations, with the exception of C<av_unshift>.
214 This routine adds C<num> elements at the front of the array with the C<undef>
215 value. You must then use C<av_store> (described below) to assign values
216 to these new elements.
218 Here are some other functions:
221 SV** av_fetch(AV*, I32 key, I32 lval);
222 SV** av_store(AV*, I32 key, SV* val);
224 The C<av_len> function returns the highest index value in array (just
225 like $#array in Perl). If the array is empty, -1 is returned. The
226 C<av_fetch> function returns the value at index C<key>, but if C<lval>
227 is non-zero, then C<av_fetch> will store an undef value at that index.
228 The C<av_store> function stores the value C<val> at index C<key>.
229 note that C<av_fetch> and C<av_store> both return C<SV**>'s, not C<SV*>'s
230 as their return value.
234 void av_extend(AV*, I32 key);
236 The C<av_clear> function deletes all the elements in the AV* array, but
237 does not actually delete the array itself. The C<av_undef> function will
238 delete all the elements in the array plus the array itself. The
239 C<av_extend> function extends the array so that it contains C<key>
240 elements. If C<key> is less than the current length of the array, then
243 If you know the name of an array variable, you can get a pointer to its AV
244 by using the following:
246 AV* perl_get_av("package::varname", FALSE);
248 This returns NULL if the variable does not exist.
250 =head2 Working with HVs
252 To create an HV, you use the following routine:
256 Once the HV has been created, the following operations are possible on HVs:
258 SV** hv_store(HV*, char* key, U32 klen, SV* val, U32 hash);
259 SV** hv_fetch(HV*, char* key, U32 klen, I32 lval);
261 The C<klen> parameter is the length of the key being passed in (Note that
262 you cannot pass 0 in as a value of C<klen> to tell Perl to measure the
263 length of the key). The C<val> argument contains the SV pointer to the
264 scalar being stored, and C<hash> is the precomputed hash value (zero if
265 you want C<hv_store> to calculate it for you). The C<lval> parameter
266 indicates whether this fetch is actually a part of a store operation, in
267 which case a new undefined value will be added to the HV with the supplied
268 key and C<hv_fetch> will return as if the value had already existed.
270 Remember that C<hv_store> and C<hv_fetch> return C<SV**>'s and not just
271 C<SV*>. To access the scalar value, you must first dereference the return
272 value. However, you should check to make sure that the return value is
273 not NULL before dereferencing it.
275 These two functions check if a hash table entry exists, and deletes it.
277 bool hv_exists(HV*, char* key, U32 klen);
278 SV* hv_delete(HV*, char* key, U32 klen, I32 flags);
280 If C<flags> does not include the C<G_DISCARD> flag then C<hv_delete> will
281 create and return a mortal copy of the deleted value.
283 And more miscellaneous functions:
288 Like their AV counterparts, C<hv_clear> deletes all the entries in the hash
289 table but does not actually delete the hash table. The C<hv_undef> deletes
290 both the entries and the hash table itself.
292 Perl keeps the actual data in linked list of structures with a typedef of HE.
293 These contain the actual key and value pointers (plus extra administrative
294 overhead). The key is a string pointer; the value is an C<SV*>. However,
295 once you have an C<HE*>, to get the actual key and value, use the routines
298 I32 hv_iterinit(HV*);
299 /* Prepares starting point to traverse hash table */
300 HE* hv_iternext(HV*);
301 /* Get the next entry, and return a pointer to a
302 structure that has both the key and value */
303 char* hv_iterkey(HE* entry, I32* retlen);
304 /* Get the key from an HE structure and also return
305 the length of the key string */
306 SV* hv_iterval(HV*, HE* entry);
307 /* Return a SV pointer to the value of the HE
309 SV* hv_iternextsv(HV*, char** key, I32* retlen);
310 /* This convenience routine combines hv_iternext,
311 hv_iterkey, and hv_iterval. The key and retlen
312 arguments are return values for the key and its
313 length. The value is returned in the SV* argument */
315 If you know the name of a hash variable, you can get a pointer to its HV
316 by using the following:
318 HV* perl_get_hv("package::varname", FALSE);
320 This returns NULL if the variable does not exist.
322 The hash algorithm is defined in the C<PERL_HASH(hash, key, klen)> macro:
328 hash = hash * 33 + *s++;
330 =head2 Hash API Extensions
332 Beginning with version 5.004, the following functions are also supported:
334 HE* hv_fetch_ent (HV* tb, SV* key, I32 lval, U32 hash);
335 HE* hv_store_ent (HV* tb, SV* key, SV* val, U32 hash);
337 bool hv_exists_ent (HV* tb, SV* key, U32 hash);
338 SV* hv_delete_ent (HV* tb, SV* key, I32 flags, U32 hash);
340 SV* hv_iterkeysv (HE* entry);
342 Note that these functions take C<SV*> keys, which simplifies writing
343 of extension code that deals with hash structures. These functions
344 also allow passing of C<SV*> keys to C<tie> functions without forcing
345 you to stringify the keys (unlike the previous set of functions).
347 They also return and accept whole hash entries (C<HE*>), making their
348 use more efficient (since the hash number for a particular string
349 doesn't have to be recomputed every time). See L<API LISTING> later in
350 this document for detailed descriptions.
352 The following macros must always be used to access the contents of hash
353 entries. Note that the arguments to these macros must be simple
354 variables, since they may get evaluated more than once. See
355 L<API LISTING> later in this document for detailed descriptions of these
358 HePV(HE* he, STRLEN len)
362 HeSVKEY_force(HE* he)
363 HeSVKEY_set(HE* he, SV* sv)
365 These two lower level macros are defined, but must only be used when
366 dealing with keys that are not C<SV*>s:
374 References are a special type of scalar that point to other data types
375 (including references).
377 To create a reference, use either of the following functions:
379 SV* newRV_inc((SV*) thing);
380 SV* newRV_noinc((SV*) thing);
382 The C<thing> argument can be any of an C<SV*>, C<AV*>, or C<HV*>. The
383 functions are identical except that C<newRV_inc> increments the reference
384 count of the C<thing>, while C<newRV_noinc> does not. For historical
385 reasons, C<newRV> is a synonym for C<newRV_inc>.
387 Once you have a reference, you can use the following macro to dereference
392 then call the appropriate routines, casting the returned C<SV*> to either an
393 C<AV*> or C<HV*>, if required.
395 To determine if an SV is a reference, you can use the following macro:
399 To discover what type of value the reference refers to, use the following
400 macro and then check the return value.
404 The most useful types that will be returned are:
413 SVt_PVGV Glob (possible a file handle)
414 SVt_PVMG Blessed or Magical Scalar
416 See the sv.h header file for more details.
418 =head2 Blessed References and Class Objects
420 References are also used to support object-oriented programming. In the
421 OO lexicon, an object is simply a reference that has been blessed into a
422 package (or class). Once blessed, the programmer may now use the reference
423 to access the various methods in the class.
425 A reference can be blessed into a package with the following function:
427 SV* sv_bless(SV* sv, HV* stash);
429 The C<sv> argument must be a reference. The C<stash> argument specifies
430 which class the reference will belong to. See
431 L<Stashes and Globs> for information on converting class names into stashes.
433 /* Still under construction */
435 Upgrades rv to reference if not already one. Creates new SV for rv to
436 point to. If C<classname> is non-null, the SV is blessed into the specified
437 class. SV is returned.
439 SV* newSVrv(SV* rv, char* classname);
441 Copies integer or double into an SV whose reference is C<rv>. SV is blessed
442 if C<classname> is non-null.
444 SV* sv_setref_iv(SV* rv, char* classname, IV iv);
445 SV* sv_setref_nv(SV* rv, char* classname, NV iv);
447 Copies the pointer value (I<the address, not the string!>) into an SV whose
448 reference is rv. SV is blessed if C<classname> is non-null.
450 SV* sv_setref_pv(SV* rv, char* classname, PV iv);
452 Copies string into an SV whose reference is C<rv>. Set length to 0 to let
453 Perl calculate the string length. SV is blessed if C<classname> is non-null.
455 SV* sv_setref_pvn(SV* rv, char* classname, PV iv, int length);
457 int sv_isa(SV* sv, char* name);
458 int sv_isobject(SV* sv);
460 =head2 Creating New Variables
462 To create a new Perl variable with an undef value which can be accessed from
463 your Perl script, use the following routines, depending on the variable type.
465 SV* perl_get_sv("package::varname", TRUE);
466 AV* perl_get_av("package::varname", TRUE);
467 HV* perl_get_hv("package::varname", TRUE);
469 Notice the use of TRUE as the second parameter. The new variable can now
470 be set, using the routines appropriate to the data type.
472 There are additional macros whose values may be bitwise OR'ed with the
473 C<TRUE> argument to enable certain extra features. Those bits are:
475 GV_ADDMULTI Marks the variable as multiply defined, thus preventing the
476 "Name <varname> used only once: possible typo" warning.
477 GV_ADDWARN Issues the warning "Had to create <varname> unexpectedly" if
478 the variable did not exist before the function was called.
480 If you do not specify a package name, the variable is created in the current
483 =head2 Reference Counts and Mortality
485 Perl uses an reference count-driven garbage collection mechanism. SVs,
486 AVs, or HVs (xV for short in the following) start their life with a
487 reference count of 1. If the reference count of an xV ever drops to 0,
488 then it will be destroyed and its memory made available for reuse.
490 This normally doesn't happen at the Perl level unless a variable is
491 undef'ed or the last variable holding a reference to it is changed or
492 overwritten. At the internal level, however, reference counts can be
493 manipulated with the following macros:
495 int SvREFCNT(SV* sv);
496 SV* SvREFCNT_inc(SV* sv);
497 void SvREFCNT_dec(SV* sv);
499 However, there is one other function which manipulates the reference
500 count of its argument. The C<newRV_inc> function, you will recall,
501 creates a reference to the specified argument. As a side effect,
502 it increments the argument's reference count. If this is not what
503 you want, use C<newRV_noinc> instead.
505 For example, imagine you want to return a reference from an XSUB function.
506 Inside the XSUB routine, you create an SV which initially has a reference
507 count of one. Then you call C<newRV_inc>, passing it the just-created SV.
508 This returns the reference as a new SV, but the reference count of the
509 SV you passed to C<newRV_inc> has been incremented to two. Now you
510 return the reference from the XSUB routine and forget about the SV.
511 But Perl hasn't! Whenever the returned reference is destroyed, the
512 reference count of the original SV is decreased to one and nothing happens.
513 The SV will hang around without any way to access it until Perl itself
514 terminates. This is a memory leak.
516 The correct procedure, then, is to use C<newRV_noinc> instead of
517 C<newRV_inc>. Then, if and when the last reference is destroyed,
518 the reference count of the SV will go to zero and it will be destroyed,
519 stopping any memory leak.
521 There are some convenience functions available that can help with the
522 destruction of xVs. These functions introduce the concept of "mortality".
523 An xV that is mortal has had its reference count marked to be decremented,
524 but not actually decremented, until "a short time later". Generally the
525 term "short time later" means a single Perl statement, such as a call to
526 an XSUB function. The actual determinant for when mortal xVs have their
527 reference count decremented depends on two macros, SAVETMPS and FREETMPS.
528 See L<perlcall> and L<perlxs> for more details on these macros.
530 "Mortalization" then is at its simplest a deferred C<SvREFCNT_dec>.
531 However, if you mortalize a variable twice, the reference count will
532 later be decremented twice.
534 You should be careful about creating mortal variables. Strange things
535 can happen if you make the same value mortal within multiple contexts,
536 or if you make a variable mortal multiple times.
538 To create a mortal variable, use the functions:
542 SV* sv_mortalcopy(SV*)
544 The first call creates a mortal SV, the second converts an existing
545 SV to a mortal SV (and thus defers a call to C<SvREFCNT_dec>), and the
546 third creates a mortal copy of an existing SV.
548 The mortal routines are not just for SVs -- AVs and HVs can be
549 made mortal by passing their address (type-casted to C<SV*>) to the
550 C<sv_2mortal> or C<sv_mortalcopy> routines.
552 =head2 Stashes and Globs
554 A "stash" is a hash that contains all of the different objects that
555 are contained within a package. Each key of the stash is a symbol
556 name (shared by all the different types of objects that have the same
557 name), and each value in the hash table is a GV (Glob Value). This GV
558 in turn contains references to the various objects of that name,
559 including (but not limited to) the following:
569 There is a single stash called "defstash" that holds the items that exist
570 in the "main" package. To get at the items in other packages, append the
571 string "::" to the package name. The items in the "Foo" package are in
572 the stash "Foo::" in defstash. The items in the "Bar::Baz" package are
573 in the stash "Baz::" in "Bar::"'s stash.
575 To get the stash pointer for a particular package, use the function:
577 HV* gv_stashpv(char* name, I32 create)
578 HV* gv_stashsv(SV*, I32 create)
580 The first function takes a literal string, the second uses the string stored
581 in the SV. Remember that a stash is just a hash table, so you get back an
582 C<HV*>. The C<create> flag will create a new package if it is set.
584 The name that C<gv_stash*v> wants is the name of the package whose symbol table
585 you want. The default package is called C<main>. If you have multiply nested
586 packages, pass their names to C<gv_stash*v>, separated by C<::> as in the Perl
589 Alternately, if you have an SV that is a blessed reference, you can find
590 out the stash pointer by using:
592 HV* SvSTASH(SvRV(SV*));
594 then use the following to get the package name itself:
596 char* HvNAME(HV* stash);
598 If you need to bless or re-bless an object you can use the following
601 SV* sv_bless(SV*, HV* stash)
603 where the first argument, an C<SV*>, must be a reference, and the second
604 argument is a stash. The returned C<SV*> can now be used in the same way
607 For more information on references and blessings, consult L<perlref>.
609 =head2 Double-Typed SVs
611 Scalar variables normally contain only one type of value, an integer,
612 double, pointer, or reference. Perl will automatically convert the
613 actual scalar data from the stored type into the requested type.
615 Some scalar variables contain more than one type of scalar data. For
616 example, the variable C<$!> contains either the numeric value of C<errno>
617 or its string equivalent from either C<strerror> or C<sys_errlist[]>.
619 To force multiple data values into an SV, you must do two things: use the
620 C<sv_set*v> routines to add the additional scalar type, then set a flag
621 so that Perl will believe it contains more than one type of data. The
622 four macros to set the flags are:
629 The particular macro you must use depends on which C<sv_set*v> routine
630 you called first. This is because every C<sv_set*v> routine turns on
631 only the bit for the particular type of data being set, and turns off
634 For example, to create a new Perl variable called "dberror" that contains
635 both the numeric and descriptive string error values, you could use the
639 extern char *dberror_list;
641 SV* sv = perl_get_sv("dberror", TRUE);
642 sv_setiv(sv, (IV) dberror);
643 sv_setpv(sv, dberror_list[dberror]);
646 If the order of C<sv_setiv> and C<sv_setpv> had been reversed, then the
647 macro C<SvPOK_on> would need to be called instead of C<SvIOK_on>.
649 =head2 Magic Variables
651 [This section still under construction. Ignore everything here. Post no
652 bills. Everything not permitted is forbidden.]
654 Any SV may be magical, that is, it has special features that a normal
655 SV does not have. These features are stored in the SV structure in a
656 linked list of C<struct magic>'s, typedef'ed to C<MAGIC>.
669 Note this is current as of patchlevel 0, and could change at any time.
671 =head2 Assigning Magic
673 Perl adds magic to an SV using the sv_magic function:
675 void sv_magic(SV* sv, SV* obj, int how, char* name, I32 namlen);
677 The C<sv> argument is a pointer to the SV that is to acquire a new magical
680 If C<sv> is not already magical, Perl uses the C<SvUPGRADE> macro to
681 set the C<SVt_PVMG> flag for the C<sv>. Perl then continues by adding
682 it to the beginning of the linked list of magical features. Any prior
683 entry of the same type of magic is deleted. Note that this can be
684 overridden, and multiple instances of the same type of magic can be
685 associated with an SV.
687 The C<name> and C<namlen> arguments are used to associate a string with
688 the magic, typically the name of a variable. C<namlen> is stored in the
689 C<mg_len> field and if C<name> is non-null and C<namlen> >= 0 a malloc'd
690 copy of the name is stored in C<mg_ptr> field.
692 The sv_magic function uses C<how> to determine which, if any, predefined
693 "Magic Virtual Table" should be assigned to the C<mg_virtual> field.
694 See the "Magic Virtual Table" section below. The C<how> argument is also
695 stored in the C<mg_type> field.
697 The C<obj> argument is stored in the C<mg_obj> field of the C<MAGIC>
698 structure. If it is not the same as the C<sv> argument, the reference
699 count of the C<obj> object is incremented. If it is the same, or if
700 the C<how> argument is "#", or if it is a null pointer, then C<obj> is
701 merely stored, without the reference count being incremented.
703 There is also a function to add magic to an C<HV>:
705 void hv_magic(HV *hv, GV *gv, int how);
707 This simply calls C<sv_magic> and coerces the C<gv> argument into an C<SV>.
709 To remove the magic from an SV, call the function sv_unmagic:
711 void sv_unmagic(SV *sv, int type);
713 The C<type> argument should be equal to the C<how> value when the C<SV>
714 was initially made magical.
716 =head2 Magic Virtual Tables
718 The C<mg_virtual> field in the C<MAGIC> structure is a pointer to a
719 C<MGVTBL>, which is a structure of function pointers and stands for
720 "Magic Virtual Table" to handle the various operations that might be
721 applied to that variable.
723 The C<MGVTBL> has five pointers to the following routine types:
725 int (*svt_get)(SV* sv, MAGIC* mg);
726 int (*svt_set)(SV* sv, MAGIC* mg);
727 U32 (*svt_len)(SV* sv, MAGIC* mg);
728 int (*svt_clear)(SV* sv, MAGIC* mg);
729 int (*svt_free)(SV* sv, MAGIC* mg);
731 This MGVTBL structure is set at compile-time in C<perl.h> and there are
732 currently 19 types (or 21 with overloading turned on). These different
733 structures contain pointers to various routines that perform additional
734 actions depending on which function is being called.
736 Function pointer Action taken
737 ---------------- ------------
738 svt_get Do something after the value of the SV is retrieved.
739 svt_set Do something after the SV is assigned a value.
740 svt_len Report on the SV's length.
741 svt_clear Clear something the SV represents.
742 svt_free Free any extra storage associated with the SV.
744 For instance, the MGVTBL structure called C<vtbl_sv> (which corresponds
745 to an C<mg_type> of '\0') contains:
747 { magic_get, magic_set, magic_len, 0, 0 }
749 Thus, when an SV is determined to be magical and of type '\0', if a get
750 operation is being performed, the routine C<magic_get> is called. All
751 the various routines for the various magical types begin with C<magic_>.
753 The current kinds of Magic Virtual Tables are:
755 mg_type MGVTBL Type of magical
756 ------- ------ ----------------------------
758 A vtbl_amagic Operator Overloading
759 a vtbl_amagicelem Operator Overloading
760 c 0 Used in Operator Overloading
761 B vtbl_bm Boyer-Moore???
763 e vtbl_envelem %ENV hash element
764 g vtbl_mglob Regexp /g flag???
765 I vtbl_isa @ISA array
766 i vtbl_isaelem @ISA array element
767 L 0 (but sets RMAGICAL) Perl Module/Debugger???
768 l vtbl_dbline Debugger?
769 o vtbl_collxfrm Locale transformation
770 P vtbl_pack Tied Array or Hash
771 p vtbl_packelem Tied Array or Hash element
772 q vtbl_packelem Tied Scalar or Handle
773 S vtbl_sig Signal Hash
774 s vtbl_sigelem Signal Hash element
775 t vtbl_taint Taintedness
778 x vtbl_substr Substring???
779 y vtbl_itervar Shadow "foreach" iterator variable
781 # vtbl_arylen Array Length
782 . vtbl_pos $. scalar variable
783 ~ None Used by certain extensions
785 When an uppercase and lowercase letter both exist in the table, then the
786 uppercase letter is used to represent some kind of composite type (a list
787 or a hash), and the lowercase letter is used to represent an element of
790 The '~' magic type is defined specifically for use by extensions and
791 will not be used by perl itself. Extensions can use ~ magic to 'attach'
792 private information to variables (typically objects). This is especially
793 useful because there is no way for normal perl code to corrupt this
794 private information (unlike using extra elements of a hash object).
796 Note that because multiple extensions may be using ~ magic it is
797 important for extensions to take extra care with it. Typically only
798 using it on objects blessed into the same class as the extension
799 is sufficient. It may also be appropriate to add an I32 'signature'
800 at the top of the private data area and check that.
804 MAGIC* mg_find(SV*, int type); /* Finds the magic pointer of that type */
806 This routine returns a pointer to the C<MAGIC> structure stored in the SV.
807 If the SV does not have that magical feature, C<NULL> is returned. Also,
808 if the SV is not of type SVt_PVMG, Perl may core dump.
810 int mg_copy(SV* sv, SV* nsv, char* key, STRLEN klen);
812 This routine checks to see what types of magic C<sv> has. If the mg_type
813 field is an uppercase letter, then the mg_obj is copied to C<nsv>, but
814 the mg_type field is changed to be the lowercase letter.
818 =head2 XSUBs and the Argument Stack
820 The XSUB mechanism is a simple way for Perl programs to access C subroutines.
821 An XSUB routine will have a stack that contains the arguments from the Perl
822 program, and a way to map from the Perl data structures to a C equivalent.
824 The stack arguments are accessible through the C<ST(n)> macro, which returns
825 the C<n>'th stack argument. Argument 0 is the first argument passed in the
826 Perl subroutine call. These arguments are C<SV*>, and can be used anywhere
829 Most of the time, output from the C routine can be handled through use of
830 the RETVAL and OUTPUT directives. However, there are some cases where the
831 argument stack is not already long enough to handle all the return values.
832 An example is the POSIX tzname() call, which takes no arguments, but returns
833 two, the local time zone's standard and summer time abbreviations.
835 To handle this situation, the PPCODE directive is used and the stack is
836 extended using the macro:
840 where C<sp> is the stack pointer, and C<num> is the number of elements the
841 stack should be extended by.
843 Now that there is room on the stack, values can be pushed on it using the
844 macros to push IVs, doubles, strings, and SV pointers respectively:
851 And now the Perl program calling C<tzname>, the two values will be assigned
854 ($standard_abbrev, $summer_abbrev) = POSIX::tzname;
856 An alternate (and possibly simpler) method to pushing values on the stack is
864 These macros automatically adjust the stack for you, if needed. Thus, you
865 do not need to call C<EXTEND> to extend the stack.
867 For more information, consult L<perlxs> and L<perlxstut>.
869 =head2 Calling Perl Routines from within C Programs
871 There are four routines that can be used to call a Perl subroutine from
872 within a C program. These four are:
874 I32 perl_call_sv(SV*, I32);
875 I32 perl_call_pv(char*, I32);
876 I32 perl_call_method(char*, I32);
877 I32 perl_call_argv(char*, I32, register char**);
879 The routine most often used is C<perl_call_sv>. The C<SV*> argument
880 contains either the name of the Perl subroutine to be called, or a
881 reference to the subroutine. The second argument consists of flags
882 that control the context in which the subroutine is called, whether
883 or not the subroutine is being passed arguments, how errors should be
884 trapped, and how to treat return values.
886 All four routines return the number of arguments that the subroutine returned
889 When using any of these routines (except C<perl_call_argv>), the programmer
890 must manipulate the Perl stack. These include the following macros and
904 For a detailed description of calling conventions from C to Perl,
907 =head2 Memory Allocation
909 It is suggested that you use the version of malloc that is distributed
910 with Perl. It keeps pools of various sizes of unallocated memory in
911 order to satisfy allocation requests more quickly. However, on some
912 platforms, it may cause spurious malloc or free errors.
914 New(x, pointer, number, type);
915 Newc(x, pointer, number, type, cast);
916 Newz(x, pointer, number, type);
918 These three macros are used to initially allocate memory.
920 The first argument C<x> was a "magic cookie" that was used to keep track
921 of who called the macro, to help when debugging memory problems. However,
922 the current code makes no use of this feature (most Perl developers now
923 use run-time memory checkers), so this argument can be any number.
925 The second argument C<pointer> should be the name of a variable that will
926 point to the newly allocated memory.
928 The third and fourth arguments C<number> and C<type> specify how many of
929 the specified type of data structure should be allocated. The argument
930 C<type> is passed to C<sizeof>. The final argument to C<Newc>, C<cast>,
931 should be used if the C<pointer> argument is different from the C<type>
934 Unlike the C<New> and C<Newc> macros, the C<Newz> macro calls C<memzero>
935 to zero out all the newly allocated memory.
937 Renew(pointer, number, type);
938 Renewc(pointer, number, type, cast);
941 These three macros are used to change a memory buffer size or to free a
942 piece of memory no longer needed. The arguments to C<Renew> and C<Renewc>
943 match those of C<New> and C<Newc> with the exception of not needing the
944 "magic cookie" argument.
946 Move(source, dest, number, type);
947 Copy(source, dest, number, type);
948 Zero(dest, number, type);
950 These three macros are used to move, copy, or zero out previously allocated
951 memory. The C<source> and C<dest> arguments point to the source and
952 destination starting points. Perl will move, copy, or zero out C<number>
953 instances of the size of the C<type> data structure (using the C<sizeof>
958 The most recent development releases of Perl has been experimenting with
959 removing Perl's dependency on the "normal" standard I/O suite and allowing
960 other stdio implementations to be used. This involves creating a new
961 abstraction layer that then calls whichever implementation of stdio Perl
962 was compiled with. All XSUBs should now use the functions in the PerlIO
963 abstraction layer and not make any assumptions about what kind of stdio
966 For a complete description of the PerlIO abstraction, consult L<perlapio>.
968 =head2 Putting a C value on Perl stack
970 A lot of opcodes (this is an elementary operation in the internal perl
971 stack machine) put an SV* on the stack. However, as an optimization
972 the corresponding SV is (usually) not recreated each time. The opcodes
973 reuse specially assigned SVs (I<target>s) which are (as a corollary)
974 not constantly freed/created.
976 Each of the targets is created only once (but see
977 L<Scratchpads and recursion> below), and when an opcode needs to put
978 an integer, a double, or a string on stack, it just sets the
979 corresponding parts of its I<target> and puts the I<target> on stack.
981 The macro to put this target on stack is C<PUSHTARG>, and it is
982 directly used in some opcodes, as well as indirectly in zillions of
983 others, which use it via C<(X)PUSH[pni]>.
987 The question remains on when the SVs which are I<target>s for opcodes
988 are created. The answer is that they are created when the current unit --
989 a subroutine or a file (for opcodes for statements outside of
990 subroutines) -- is compiled. During this time a special anonymous Perl
991 array is created, which is called a scratchpad for the current
994 A scratchpad keeps SVs which are lexicals for the current unit and are
995 targets for opcodes. One can deduce that an SV lives on a scratchpad
996 by looking on its flags: lexicals have C<SVs_PADMY> set, and
997 I<target>s have C<SVs_PADTMP> set.
999 The correspondence between OPs and I<target>s is not 1-to-1. Different
1000 OPs in the compile tree of the unit can use the same target, if this
1001 would not conflict with the expected life of the temporary.
1003 =head2 Scratchpads and recursion
1005 In fact it is not 100% true that a compiled unit contains a pointer to
1006 the scratchpad AV. In fact it contains a pointer to an AV of
1007 (initially) one element, and this element is the scratchpad AV. Why do
1008 we need an extra level of indirection?
1010 The answer is B<recursion>, and maybe (sometime soon) B<threads>. Both
1011 these can create several execution pointers going into the same
1012 subroutine. For the subroutine-child not write over the temporaries
1013 for the subroutine-parent (lifespan of which covers the call to the
1014 child), the parent and the child should have different
1015 scratchpads. (I<And> the lexicals should be separate anyway!)
1017 So each subroutine is born with an array of scratchpads (of length 1).
1018 On each entry to the subroutine it is checked that the current
1019 depth of the recursion is not more than the length of this array, and
1020 if it is, new scratchpad is created and pushed into the array.
1022 The I<target>s on this scratchpad are C<undef>s, but they are already
1023 marked with correct flags.
1025 =head1 Compiled code
1029 Here we describe the internal form your code is converted to by
1030 Perl. Start with a simple example:
1034 This is converted to a tree similar to this one:
1042 (but slightly more complicated). This tree reflect the way Perl
1043 parsed your code, but has nothing to do with the execution order.
1044 There is an additional "thread" going through the nodes of the tree
1045 which shows the order of execution of the nodes. In our simplified
1046 example above it looks like:
1048 $b ---> $c ---> + ---> $a ---> assign-to
1050 But with the actual compile tree for C<$a = $b + $c> it is different:
1051 some nodes I<optimized away>. As a corollary, though the actual tree
1052 contains more nodes than our simplified example, the execution order
1053 is the same as in our example.
1055 =head2 Examining the tree
1057 If you have your perl compiled for debugging (usually done with C<-D
1058 optimize=-g> on C<Configure> command line), you may examine the
1059 compiled tree by specifying C<-Dx> on the Perl command line. The
1060 output takes several lines per node, and for C<$b+$c> it looks like
1065 FLAGS = (SCALAR,KIDS)
1067 TYPE = null ===> (4)
1069 FLAGS = (SCALAR,KIDS)
1071 3 TYPE = gvsv ===> 4
1077 TYPE = null ===> (5)
1079 FLAGS = (SCALAR,KIDS)
1081 4 TYPE = gvsv ===> 5
1087 This tree has 5 nodes (one per C<TYPE> specifier), only 3 of them are
1088 not optimized away (one per number in the left column). The immediate
1089 children of the given node correspond to C<{}> pairs on the same level
1090 of indentation, thus this listing corresponds to the tree:
1098 The execution order is indicated by C<===E<gt>> marks, thus it is C<3
1099 4 5 6> (node C<6> is not included into above listing), i.e.,
1100 C<gvsv gvsv add whatever>.
1102 =head2 Compile pass 1: check routines
1104 The tree is created by the I<pseudo-compiler> while yacc code feeds it
1105 the constructions it recognizes. Since yacc works bottom-up, so does
1106 the first pass of perl compilation.
1108 What makes this pass interesting for perl developers is that some
1109 optimization may be performed on this pass. This is optimization by
1110 so-called I<check routines>. The correspondence between node names
1111 and corresponding check routines is described in F<opcode.pl> (do not
1112 forget to run C<make regen_headers> if you modify this file).
1114 A check routine is called when the node is fully constructed except
1115 for the execution-order thread. Since at this time there is no
1116 back-links to the currently constructed node, one can do most any
1117 operation to the top-level node, including freeing it and/or creating
1118 new nodes above/below it.
1120 The check routine returns the node which should be inserted into the
1121 tree (if the top-level node was not modified, check routine returns
1124 By convention, check routines have names C<ck_*>. They are usually
1125 called from C<new*OP> subroutines (or C<convert>) (which in turn are
1126 called from F<perly.y>).
1128 =head2 Compile pass 1a: constant folding
1130 Immediately after the check routine is called the returned node is
1131 checked for being compile-time executable. If it is (the value is
1132 judged to be constant) it is immediately executed, and a I<constant>
1133 node with the "return value" of the corresponding subtree is
1134 substituted instead. The subtree is deleted.
1136 If constant folding was not performed, the execution-order thread is
1139 =head2 Compile pass 2: context propagation
1141 When a context for a part of compile tree is known, it is propagated
1142 down through the tree. Aat this time the context can have 5 values
1143 (instead of 2 for runtime context): void, boolean, scalar, list, and
1144 lvalue. In contrast with the pass 1 this pass is processed from top
1145 to bottom: a node's context determines the context for its children.
1147 Additional context-dependent optimizations are performed at this time.
1148 Since at this moment the compile tree contains back-references (via
1149 "thread" pointers), nodes cannot be free()d now. To allow
1150 optimized-away nodes at this stage, such nodes are null()ified instead
1151 of free()ing (i.e. their type is changed to OP_NULL).
1153 =head2 Compile pass 3: peephole optimization
1155 After the compile tree for a subroutine (or for an C<eval> or a file)
1156 is created, an additional pass over the code is performed. This pass
1157 is neither top-down or bottom-up, but in the execution order (with
1158 additional compilications for conditionals). These optimizations are
1159 done in the subroutine peep(). Optimizations performed at this stage
1160 are subject to the same restrictions as in the pass 2.
1164 This is a listing of functions, macros, flags, and variables that may be
1165 useful to extension writers or that may be found while reading other
1176 Clears an array, making it empty. Does not free the memory used by the
1179 void av_clear _((AV* ar));
1183 Pre-extend an array. The C<key> is the index to which the array should be
1186 void av_extend _((AV* ar, I32 key));
1190 Returns the SV at the specified index in the array. The C<key> is the
1191 index. If C<lval> is set then the fetch will be part of a store. Check
1192 that the return value is non-null before dereferencing it to a C<SV*>.
1194 SV** av_fetch _((AV* ar, I32 key, I32 lval));
1198 Returns the highest index in the array. Returns -1 if the array is empty.
1200 I32 av_len _((AV* ar));
1204 Creates a new AV and populates it with a list of SVs. The SVs are copied
1205 into the array, so they may be freed after the call to av_make. The new AV
1206 will have a reference count of 1.
1208 AV* av_make _((I32 size, SV** svp));
1212 Pops an SV off the end of the array. Returns C<&sv_undef> if the array is
1215 SV* av_pop _((AV* ar));
1219 Pushes an SV onto the end of the array. The array will grow automatically
1220 to accommodate the addition.
1222 void av_push _((AV* ar, SV* val));
1226 Shifts an SV off the beginning of the array.
1228 SV* av_shift _((AV* ar));
1232 Stores an SV in an array. The array index is specified as C<key>. The
1233 return value will be null if the operation failed, otherwise it can be
1234 dereferenced to get the original C<SV*>.
1236 SV** av_store _((AV* ar, I32 key, SV* val));
1240 Undefines the array. Frees the memory used by the array itself.
1242 void av_undef _((AV* ar));
1246 Unshift the given number of C<undef> values onto the beginning of the
1247 array. The array will grow automatically to accommodate the addition.
1248 You must then use C<av_store> to assign values to these new elements.
1250 void av_unshift _((AV* ar, I32 num));
1254 Variable which is setup by C<xsubpp> to indicate the class name for a C++ XS
1255 constructor. This is always a C<char*>. See C<THIS> and
1256 L<perlxs/"Using XS With C++">.
1260 The XSUB-writer's interface to the C C<memcpy> function. The C<s> is the
1261 source, C<d> is the destination, C<n> is the number of items, and C<t> is
1262 the type. May fail on overlapping copies. See also C<Move>.
1264 (void) Copy( s, d, n, t );
1268 This is the XSUB-writer's interface to Perl's C<die> function. Use this
1269 function the same way you use the C C<printf> function. See C<warn>.
1273 Returns the stash of the CV.
1275 HV * CvSTASH( SV* sv )
1279 When Perl is run in debugging mode, with the B<-d> switch, this SV is a
1280 boolean which indicates whether subs are being single-stepped.
1281 Single-stepping is automatically turned on after every step. This is the C
1282 variable which corresponds to Perl's $DB::single variable. See C<DBsub>.
1286 When Perl is run in debugging mode, with the B<-d> switch, this GV contains
1287 the SV which holds the name of the sub being debugged. This is the C
1288 variable which corresponds to Perl's $DB::sub variable. See C<DBsingle>.
1289 The sub name can be found by
1291 SvPV( GvSV( DBsub ), na )
1295 Trace variable used when Perl is run in debugging mode, with the B<-d>
1296 switch. This is the C variable which corresponds to Perl's $DB::trace
1297 variable. See C<DBsingle>.
1301 Declare a stack marker variable, C<mark>, for the XSUB. See C<MARK> and
1306 Saves the original stack mark for the XSUB. See C<ORIGMARK>.
1310 The C variable which corresponds to Perl's $^W warning variable.
1314 Declares a stack pointer variable, C<sp>, for the XSUB. See C<SP>.
1318 Sets up stack and mark pointers for an XSUB, calling dSP and dMARK. This is
1319 usually handled automatically by C<xsubpp>. Declares the C<items> variable
1320 to indicate the number of items on the stack.
1324 Sets up the C<ix> variable for an XSUB which has aliases. This is usually
1325 handled automatically by C<xsubpp>.
1329 Sets up the C<ix> variable for an XSUB which has aliases. This is usually
1330 handled automatically by C<xsubpp>.
1334 Opening bracket on a callback. See C<LEAVE> and L<perlcall>.
1340 Used to extend the argument stack for an XSUB's return values.
1342 EXTEND( sp, int x );
1346 Closing bracket for temporaries on a callback. See C<SAVETMPS> and
1353 Used to indicate array context. See C<GIMME_V>, C<GIMME> and L<perlcall>.
1357 Indicates that arguments returned from a callback should be discarded. See
1362 Used to force a Perl C<eval> wrapper around a callback. See L<perlcall>.
1366 A backward-compatible version of C<GIMME_V> which can only return
1367 C<G_SCALAR> or C<G_ARRAY>; in a void context, it returns C<G_SCALAR>.
1371 The XSUB-writer's equivalent to Perl's C<wantarray>. Returns
1372 C<G_VOID>, C<G_SCALAR> or C<G_ARRAY> for void, scalar or array
1373 context, respectively.
1377 Indicates that no arguments are being sent to a callback. See L<perlcall>.
1381 Used to indicate scalar context. See C<GIMME_V>, C<GIMME>, and L<perlcall>.
1385 Used to indicate void context. See C<GIMME_V> and L<perlcall>.
1389 Returns the glob with the given C<name> and a defined subroutine or
1390 C<NULL>. The glob lives in the given C<stash>, or in the stashes
1391 accessable via @ISA and @<UNIVERSAL>.
1393 The argument C<level> should be either 0 or -1. If C<level==0>, as a
1394 side-effect creates a glob with the given C<name> in the given
1395 C<stash> which in the case of success contains an alias for the
1396 subroutine, and sets up caching info for this glob. Similarly for all
1397 the searched stashes.
1399 This function grants C<"SUPER"> token as a postfix of the stash name.
1401 The GV returned from C<gv_fetchmeth> may be a method cache entry,
1402 which is not visible to Perl code. So when calling C<perl_call_sv>,
1403 you should not use the GV directly; instead, you should use the
1404 method's CV, which can be obtained from the GV with the C<GvCV> macro.
1406 GV* gv_fetchmeth _((HV* stash, char* name, STRLEN len, I32 level));
1408 =item gv_fetchmethod
1410 =item gv_fetchmethod_autoload
1412 Returns the glob which contains the subroutine to call to invoke the
1413 method on the C<stash>. In fact in the presense of autoloading this may
1414 be the glob for "AUTOLOAD". In this case the corresponding variable
1415 $AUTOLOAD is already setup.
1417 The third parameter of C<gv_fetchmethod_autoload> determines whether AUTOLOAD
1418 lookup is performed if the given method is not present: non-zero means
1419 yes, look for AUTOLOAD; zero means no, don't look for AUTOLOAD. Calling
1420 C<gv_fetchmethod> is equivalent to calling C<gv_fetchmethod_autoload> with a
1421 non-zero C<autoload> parameter.
1423 These functions grant C<"SUPER"> token as a prefix of the method name.
1425 Note that if you want to keep the returned glob for a long time, you
1426 need to check for it being "AUTOLOAD", since at the later time the call
1427 may load a different subroutine due to $AUTOLOAD changing its value.
1428 Use the glob created via a side effect to do this.
1430 These functions have the same side-effects and as C<gv_fetchmeth> with
1431 C<level==0>. C<name> should be writable if contains C<':'> or C<'\''>.
1432 The warning against passing the GV returned by C<gv_fetchmeth> to
1433 C<perl_call_sv> apply equally to these functions.
1435 GV* gv_fetchmethod _((HV* stash, char* name));
1436 GV* gv_fetchmethod_autoload _((HV* stash, char* name,
1441 Returns a pointer to the stash for a specified package. If C<create> is set
1442 then the package will be created if it does not already exist. If C<create>
1443 is not set and the package does not exist then NULL is returned.
1445 HV* gv_stashpv _((char* name, I32 create));
1449 Returns a pointer to the stash for a specified package. See C<gv_stashpv>.
1451 HV* gv_stashsv _((SV* sv, I32 create));
1455 Return the SV from the GV.
1459 This flag, used in the length slot of hash entries and magic
1460 structures, specifies the structure contains a C<SV*> pointer where a
1461 C<char*> pointer is to be expected. (For information only--not to be used).
1465 Returns the computed hash (type C<U32>) stored in the hash entry.
1471 Returns the actual pointer stored in the key slot of the hash entry.
1472 The pointer may be either C<char*> or C<SV*>, depending on the value of
1473 C<HeKLEN()>. Can be assigned to. The C<HePV()> or C<HeSVKEY()> macros
1474 are usually preferable for finding the value of a key.
1480 If this is negative, and amounts to C<HEf_SVKEY>, it indicates the entry
1481 holds an C<SV*> key. Otherwise, holds the actual length of the key.
1482 Can be assigned to. The C<HePV()> macro is usually preferable for finding
1489 Returns the key slot of the hash entry as a C<char*> value, doing any
1490 necessary dereferencing of possibly C<SV*> keys. The length of
1491 the string is placed in C<len> (this is a macro, so do I<not> use
1492 C<&len>). If you do not care about what the length of the key is,
1493 you may use the global variable C<na>. Remember though, that hash
1494 keys in perl are free to contain embedded nulls, so using C<strlen()>
1495 or similar is not a good way to find the length of hash keys.
1496 This is very similar to the C<SvPV()> macro described elsewhere in
1499 HePV(HE* he, STRLEN len)
1503 Returns the key as an C<SV*>, or C<Nullsv> if the hash entry
1504 does not contain an C<SV*> key.
1510 Returns the key as an C<SV*>. Will create and return a temporary
1511 mortal C<SV*> if the hash entry contains only a C<char*> key.
1513 HeSVKEY_force(HE* he)
1517 Sets the key to a given C<SV*>, taking care to set the appropriate flags
1518 to indicate the presence of an C<SV*> key, and returns the same C<SV*>.
1520 HeSVKEY_set(HE* he, SV* sv)
1524 Returns the value slot (type C<SV*>) stored in the hash entry.
1530 Clears a hash, making it empty.
1532 void hv_clear _((HV* tb));
1534 =item hv_delayfree_ent
1536 Releases a hash entry, such as while iterating though the hash, but
1537 delays actual freeing of key and value until the end of the current
1538 statement (or thereabouts) with C<sv_2mortal>. See C<hv_iternext>
1541 void hv_delayfree_ent _((HV* hv, HE* entry));
1545 Deletes a key/value pair in the hash. The value SV is removed from the hash
1546 and returned to the caller. The C<klen> is the length of the key. The
1547 C<flags> value will normally be zero; if set to G_DISCARD then null will be
1550 SV* hv_delete _((HV* tb, char* key, U32 klen, I32 flags));
1554 Deletes a key/value pair in the hash. The value SV is removed from the hash
1555 and returned to the caller. The C<flags> value will normally be zero; if set
1556 to G_DISCARD then null will be returned. C<hash> can be a valid precomputed
1557 hash value, or 0 to ask for it to be computed.
1559 SV* hv_delete_ent _((HV* tb, SV* key, I32 flags, U32 hash));
1563 Returns a boolean indicating whether the specified hash key exists. The
1564 C<klen> is the length of the key.
1566 bool hv_exists _((HV* tb, char* key, U32 klen));
1570 Returns a boolean indicating whether the specified hash key exists. C<hash>
1571 can be a valid precomputed hash value, or 0 to ask for it to be computed.
1573 bool hv_exists_ent _((HV* tb, SV* key, U32 hash));
1577 Returns the SV which corresponds to the specified key in the hash. The
1578 C<klen> is the length of the key. If C<lval> is set then the fetch will be
1579 part of a store. Check that the return value is non-null before
1580 dereferencing it to a C<SV*>.
1582 SV** hv_fetch _((HV* tb, char* key, U32 klen, I32 lval));
1586 Returns the hash entry which corresponds to the specified key in the hash.
1587 C<hash> must be a valid precomputed hash number for the given C<key>, or
1588 0 if you want the function to compute it. IF C<lval> is set then the
1589 fetch will be part of a store. Make sure the return value is non-null
1590 before accessing it. The return value when C<tb> is a tied hash
1591 is a pointer to a static location, so be sure to make a copy of the
1592 structure if you need to store it somewhere.
1594 HE* hv_fetch_ent _((HV* tb, SV* key, I32 lval, U32 hash));
1598 Releases a hash entry, such as while iterating though the hash. See
1599 C<hv_iternext> and C<hv_delayfree_ent>.
1601 void hv_free_ent _((HV* hv, HE* entry));
1605 Prepares a starting point to traverse a hash table.
1607 I32 hv_iterinit _((HV* tb));
1611 Returns the key from the current position of the hash iterator. See
1614 char* hv_iterkey _((HE* entry, I32* retlen));
1618 Returns the key as an C<SV*> from the current position of the hash
1619 iterator. The return value will always be a mortal copy of the
1620 key. Also see C<hv_iterinit>.
1622 SV* hv_iterkeysv _((HE* entry));
1626 Returns entries from a hash iterator. See C<hv_iterinit>.
1628 HE* hv_iternext _((HV* tb));
1632 Performs an C<hv_iternext>, C<hv_iterkey>, and C<hv_iterval> in one
1635 SV * hv_iternextsv _((HV* hv, char** key, I32* retlen));
1639 Returns the value from the current position of the hash iterator. See
1642 SV* hv_iterval _((HV* tb, HE* entry));
1646 Adds magic to a hash. See C<sv_magic>.
1648 void hv_magic _((HV* hv, GV* gv, int how));
1652 Returns the package name of a stash. See C<SvSTASH>, C<CvSTASH>.
1654 char *HvNAME (HV* stash)
1658 Stores an SV in a hash. The hash key is specified as C<key> and C<klen> is
1659 the length of the key. The C<hash> parameter is the precomputed hash
1660 value; if it is zero then Perl will compute it. The return value will be
1661 null if the operation failed, otherwise it can be dereferenced to get the
1664 SV** hv_store _((HV* tb, char* key, U32 klen, SV* val, U32 hash));
1668 Stores C<val> in a hash. The hash key is specified as C<key>. The C<hash>
1669 parameter is the precomputed hash value; if it is zero then Perl will
1670 compute it. The return value is the new hash entry so created. It will be
1671 null if the operation failed or if the entry was stored in a tied hash.
1672 Otherwise the contents of the return value can be accessed using the
1673 C<He???> macros described here.
1675 HE* hv_store_ent _((HV* tb, SV* key, SV* val, U32 hash));
1681 void hv_undef _((HV* tb));
1685 Returns a boolean indicating whether the C C<char> is an ascii alphanumeric
1688 int isALNUM (char c)
1692 Returns a boolean indicating whether the C C<char> is an ascii alphabetic
1695 int isALPHA (char c)
1699 Returns a boolean indicating whether the C C<char> is an ascii digit.
1701 int isDIGIT (char c)
1705 Returns a boolean indicating whether the C C<char> is a lowercase character.
1707 int isLOWER (char c)
1711 Returns a boolean indicating whether the C C<char> is whitespace.
1713 int isSPACE (char c)
1717 Returns a boolean indicating whether the C C<char> is an uppercase character.
1719 int isUPPER (char c)
1723 Variable which is setup by C<xsubpp> to indicate the number of items on the
1724 stack. See L<perlxs/"Variable-length Parameter Lists">.
1728 Variable which is setup by C<xsubpp> to indicate which of an XSUB's aliases
1729 was used to invoke it. See L<perlxs/"The ALIAS: Keyword">.
1733 Closing bracket on a callback. See C<ENTER> and L<perlcall>.
1739 Stack marker variable for the XSUB. See C<dMARK>.
1743 Clear something magical that the SV represents. See C<sv_magic>.
1745 int mg_clear _((SV* sv));
1749 Copies the magic from one SV to another. See C<sv_magic>.
1751 int mg_copy _((SV *, SV *, char *, STRLEN));
1755 Finds the magic pointer for type matching the SV. See C<sv_magic>.
1757 MAGIC* mg_find _((SV* sv, int type));
1761 Free any magic storage used by the SV. See C<sv_magic>.
1763 int mg_free _((SV* sv));
1767 Do magic after a value is retrieved from the SV. See C<sv_magic>.
1769 int mg_get _((SV* sv));
1773 Report on the SV's length. See C<sv_magic>.
1775 U32 mg_len _((SV* sv));
1779 Turns on the magical status of an SV. See C<sv_magic>.
1781 void mg_magical _((SV* sv));
1785 Do magic after a value is assigned to the SV. See C<sv_magic>.
1787 int mg_set _((SV* sv));
1791 The XSUB-writer's interface to the C C<memmove> function. The C<s> is the
1792 source, C<d> is the destination, C<n> is the number of items, and C<t> is
1793 the type. Can do overlapping moves. See also C<Copy>.
1795 (void) Move( s, d, n, t );
1799 A variable which may be used with C<SvPV> to tell Perl to calculate the
1804 The XSUB-writer's interface to the C C<malloc> function.
1806 void * New( x, void *ptr, int size, type )
1810 The XSUB-writer's interface to the C C<malloc> function, with cast.
1812 void * Newc( x, void *ptr, int size, type, cast )
1816 The XSUB-writer's interface to the C C<malloc> function. The allocated
1817 memory is zeroed with C<memzero>.
1819 void * Newz( x, void *ptr, int size, type )
1823 Creates a new AV. The reference count is set to 1.
1825 AV* newAV _((void));
1829 Creates a new HV. The reference count is set to 1.
1831 HV* newHV _((void));
1835 Creates an RV wrapper for an SV. The reference count for the original SV is
1838 SV* newRV_inc _((SV* ref));
1840 For historical reasons, "newRV" is a synonym for "newRV_inc".
1844 Creates an RV wrapper for an SV. The reference count for the original
1845 SV is B<not> incremented.
1847 SV* newRV_noinc _((SV* ref));
1851 Creates a new SV. The C<len> parameter indicates the number of bytes of
1852 preallocated string space the SV should have. The reference count for the
1855 SV* newSV _((STRLEN len));
1859 Creates a new SV and copies an integer into it. The reference count for the
1862 SV* newSViv _((IV i));
1866 Creates a new SV and copies a double into it. The reference count for the
1869 SV* newSVnv _((NV i));
1873 Creates a new SV and copies a string into it. The reference count for the
1874 SV is set to 1. If C<len> is zero then Perl will compute the length.
1876 SV* newSVpv _((char* s, STRLEN len));
1880 Creates a new SV for the RV, C<rv>, to point to. If C<rv> is not an RV then
1881 it will be upgraded to one. If C<classname> is non-null then the new SV will
1882 be blessed in the specified package. The new SV is returned and its
1883 reference count is 1.
1885 SV* newSVrv _((SV* rv, char* classname));
1889 Creates a new SV which is an exact duplicate of the original SV.
1891 SV* newSVsv _((SV* old));
1895 Used by C<xsubpp> to hook up XSUBs as Perl subs.
1899 Used by C<xsubpp> to hook up XSUBs as Perl subs. Adds Perl prototypes to
1908 Null character pointer.
1924 The original stack mark for the XSUB. See C<dORIGMARK>.
1928 Allocates a new Perl interpreter. See L<perlembed>.
1930 =item perl_call_argv
1932 Performs a callback to the specified Perl sub. See L<perlcall>.
1934 I32 perl_call_argv _((char* subname, I32 flags, char** argv));
1936 =item perl_call_method
1938 Performs a callback to the specified Perl method. The blessed object must
1939 be on the stack. See L<perlcall>.
1941 I32 perl_call_method _((char* methname, I32 flags));
1945 Performs a callback to the specified Perl sub. See L<perlcall>.
1947 I32 perl_call_pv _((char* subname, I32 flags));
1951 Performs a callback to the Perl sub whose name is in the SV. See
1954 I32 perl_call_sv _((SV* sv, I32 flags));
1956 =item perl_construct
1958 Initializes a new Perl interpreter. See L<perlembed>.
1962 Shuts down a Perl interpreter. See L<perlembed>.
1966 Tells Perl to C<eval> the string in the SV.
1968 I32 perl_eval_sv _((SV* sv, I32 flags));
1972 Tells Perl to C<eval> the given string and return an SV* result.
1974 SV* perl_eval_pv _((char* p, I32 croak_on_error));
1978 Releases a Perl interpreter. See L<perlembed>.
1982 Returns the AV of the specified Perl array. If C<create> is set and the
1983 Perl variable does not exist then it will be created. If C<create> is not
1984 set and the variable does not exist then null is returned.
1986 AV* perl_get_av _((char* name, I32 create));
1990 Returns the CV of the specified Perl sub. If C<create> is set and the Perl
1991 variable does not exist then it will be created. If C<create> is not
1992 set and the variable does not exist then null is returned.
1994 CV* perl_get_cv _((char* name, I32 create));
1998 Returns the HV of the specified Perl hash. If C<create> is set and the Perl
1999 variable does not exist then it will be created. If C<create> is not
2000 set and the variable does not exist then null is returned.
2002 HV* perl_get_hv _((char* name, I32 create));
2006 Returns the SV of the specified Perl scalar. If C<create> is set and the
2007 Perl variable does not exist then it will be created. If C<create> is not
2008 set and the variable does not exist then null is returned.
2010 SV* perl_get_sv _((char* name, I32 create));
2014 Tells a Perl interpreter to parse a Perl script. See L<perlembed>.
2016 =item perl_require_pv
2018 Tells Perl to C<require> a module.
2020 void perl_require_pv _((char* pv));
2024 Tells a Perl interpreter to run. See L<perlembed>.
2028 Pops an integer off the stack.
2034 Pops a long off the stack.
2040 Pops a string off the stack.
2046 Pops a double off the stack.
2052 Pops an SV off the stack.
2058 Opening bracket for arguments on a callback. See C<PUTBACK> and L<perlcall>.
2064 Push an integer onto the stack. The stack must have room for this element.
2071 Push a double onto the stack. The stack must have room for this element.
2078 Push a string onto the stack. The stack must have room for this element.
2079 The C<len> indicates the length of the string. See C<XPUSHp>.
2081 PUSHp(char *c, int len )
2085 Push an SV onto the stack. The stack must have room for this element. See
2092 Closing bracket for XSUB arguments. This is usually handled by C<xsubpp>.
2093 See C<PUSHMARK> and L<perlcall> for other uses.
2099 The XSUB-writer's interface to the C C<realloc> function.
2101 void * Renew( void *ptr, int size, type )
2105 The XSUB-writer's interface to the C C<realloc> function, with cast.
2107 void * Renewc( void *ptr, int size, type, cast )
2111 Variable which is setup by C<xsubpp> to hold the return value for an XSUB.
2112 This is always the proper type for the XSUB.
2113 See L<perlxs/"The RETVAL Variable">.
2117 The XSUB-writer's interface to the C C<free> function.
2121 The XSUB-writer's interface to the C C<malloc> function.
2125 The XSUB-writer's interface to the C C<realloc> function.
2129 Copy a string to a safe spot. This does not use an SV.
2131 char* savepv _((char* sv));
2135 Copy a string to a safe spot. The C<len> indicates number of bytes to
2136 copy. This does not use an SV.
2138 char* savepvn _((char* sv, I32 len));
2142 Opening bracket for temporaries on a callback. See C<FREETMPS> and
2149 Stack pointer. This is usually handled by C<xsubpp>. See C<dSP> and
2154 Refetch the stack pointer. Used after a callback. See L<perlcall>.
2160 Used to access elements on the XSUB's stack.
2166 Test two strings to see if they are equal. Returns true or false.
2168 int strEQ( char *s1, char *s2 )
2172 Test two strings to see if the first, C<s1>, is greater than or equal to the
2173 second, C<s2>. Returns true or false.
2175 int strGE( char *s1, char *s2 )
2179 Test two strings to see if the first, C<s1>, is greater than the second,
2180 C<s2>. Returns true or false.
2182 int strGT( char *s1, char *s2 )
2186 Test two strings to see if the first, C<s1>, is less than or equal to the
2187 second, C<s2>. Returns true or false.
2189 int strLE( char *s1, char *s2 )
2193 Test two strings to see if the first, C<s1>, is less than the second,
2194 C<s2>. Returns true or false.
2196 int strLT( char *s1, char *s2 )
2200 Test two strings to see if they are different. Returns true or false.
2202 int strNE( char *s1, char *s2 )
2206 Test two strings to see if they are equal. The C<len> parameter indicates
2207 the number of bytes to compare. Returns true or false.
2209 int strnEQ( char *s1, char *s2 )
2213 Test two strings to see if they are different. The C<len> parameter
2214 indicates the number of bytes to compare. Returns true or false.
2216 int strnNE( char *s1, char *s2, int len )
2220 Marks an SV as mortal. The SV will be destroyed when the current context
2223 SV* sv_2mortal _((SV* sv));
2227 Blesses an SV into a specified package. The SV must be an RV. The package
2228 must be designated by its stash (see C<gv_stashpv()>). The reference count
2229 of the SV is unaffected.
2231 SV* sv_bless _((SV* sv, HV* stash));
2235 Concatenates the string onto the end of the string which is in the SV.
2237 void sv_catpv _((SV* sv, char* ptr));
2241 Concatenates the string onto the end of the string which is in the SV. The
2242 C<len> indicates number of bytes to copy.
2244 void sv_catpvn _((SV* sv, char* ptr, STRLEN len));
2248 Processes its arguments like C<sprintf> and appends the formatted output
2251 void sv_catpvf _((SV* sv, const char* pat, ...));
2255 Concatenates the string from SV C<ssv> onto the end of the string in SV
2258 void sv_catsv _((SV* dsv, SV* ssv));
2262 Compares the strings in two SVs. Returns -1, 0, or 1 indicating whether the
2263 string in C<sv1> is less than, equal to, or greater than the string in
2266 I32 sv_cmp _((SV* sv1, SV* sv2));
2270 Compares the strings in two SVs. Returns -1, 0, or 1 indicating whether the
2271 string in C<sv1> is less than, equal to, or greater than the string in
2274 I32 sv_cmp _((SV* sv1, SV* sv2));
2278 Returns the length of the string which is in the SV. See C<SvLEN>.
2284 Set the length of the string which is in the SV. See C<SvCUR>.
2286 SvCUR_set (SV* sv, int val )
2290 Auto-decrement of the value in the SV.
2292 void sv_dec _((SV* sv));
2296 Auto-decrement of the value in the SV.
2298 void sv_dec _((SV* sv));
2302 Returns a pointer to the last character in the string which is in the SV.
2303 See C<SvCUR>. Access the character as
2309 Returns a boolean indicating whether the strings in the two SVs are
2312 I32 sv_eq _((SV* sv1, SV* sv2));
2316 Expands the character buffer in the SV. Calls C<sv_grow> to perform the
2317 expansion if necessary. Returns a pointer to the character buffer.
2319 char * SvGROW( SV* sv, int len )
2323 Expands the character buffer in the SV. This will use C<sv_unref> and will
2324 upgrade the SV to C<SVt_PV>. Returns a pointer to the character buffer.
2329 Auto-increment of the value in the SV.
2331 void sv_inc _((SV* sv));
2335 Returns a boolean indicating whether the SV contains an integer.
2341 Unsets the IV status of an SV.
2347 Tells an SV that it is an integer.
2353 Tells an SV that it is an integer and disables all other OK bits.
2359 Tells an SV that it is an integer and disables all other OK bits.
2365 Returns a boolean indicating whether the SV contains an integer. Checks the
2366 B<private> setting. Use C<SvIOK>.
2372 Returns a boolean indicating whether the SV is blessed into the specified
2373 class. This does not know how to check for subtype, so it doesn't work in
2374 an inheritance relationship.
2376 int sv_isa _((SV* sv, char* name));
2380 Returns the integer which is in the SV.
2386 Returns a boolean indicating whether the SV is an RV pointing to a blessed
2387 object. If the SV is not an RV, or if the object is not blessed, then this
2390 int sv_isobject _((SV* sv));
2394 Returns the integer which is stored in the SV.
2400 Returns the size of the string buffer in the SV. See C<SvCUR>.
2406 Returns the length of the string in the SV. Use C<SvCUR>.
2408 STRLEN sv_len _((SV* sv));
2412 Returns the length of the string in the SV. Use C<SvCUR>.
2414 STRLEN sv_len _((SV* sv));
2418 Adds magic to an SV.
2420 void sv_magic _((SV* sv, SV* obj, int how, char* name, I32 namlen));
2424 Creates a new SV which is a copy of the original SV. The new SV is marked
2427 SV* sv_mortalcopy _((SV* oldsv));
2431 Returns a boolean indicating whether the value is an SV.
2437 Creates a new SV which is mortal. The reference count of the SV is set to 1.
2439 SV* sv_newmortal _((void));
2443 This is the C<false> SV. See C<sv_yes>. Always refer to this as C<&sv_no>.
2447 Returns a boolean indicating whether the SV contains a number, integer or
2454 Unsets the NV/IV status of an SV.
2460 Returns a boolean indicating whether the SV contains a number, integer or
2461 double. Checks the B<private> setting. Use C<SvNIOK>.
2463 int SvNIOKp (SV* SV)
2467 Returns a boolean indicating whether the SV contains a double.
2473 Unsets the NV status of an SV.
2479 Tells an SV that it is a double.
2485 Tells an SV that it is a double and disables all other OK bits.
2491 Tells an SV that it is a double and disables all other OK bits.
2497 Returns a boolean indicating whether the SV contains a double. Checks the
2498 B<private> setting. Use C<SvNOK>.
2504 Returns the double which is stored in the SV.
2506 double SvNV (SV* sv);
2510 Returns the double which is stored in the SV.
2512 double SvNVX (SV* sv);
2516 Returns a boolean indicating whether the SV contains a character string.
2522 Unsets the PV status of an SV.
2528 Tells an SV that it is a string.
2534 Tells an SV that it is a string and disables all other OK bits.
2540 Tells an SV that it is a string and disables all other OK bits.
2546 Returns a boolean indicating whether the SV contains a character string.
2547 Checks the B<private> setting. Use C<SvPOK>.
2553 Returns a pointer to the string in the SV, or a stringified form of the SV
2554 if the SV does not contain a string. If C<len> is C<na> then Perl will
2555 handle the length on its own.
2557 char * SvPV (SV* sv, int len )
2561 Returns a pointer to the string in the SV. The SV must contain a string.
2563 char * SvPVX (SV* sv)
2567 Returns the value of the object's reference count.
2569 int SvREFCNT (SV* sv);
2573 Decrements the reference count of the given SV.
2575 void SvREFCNT_dec (SV* sv)
2579 Increments the reference count of the given SV.
2581 void SvREFCNT_inc (SV* sv)
2585 Tests if the SV is an RV.
2591 Unsets the RV status of an SV.
2597 Tells an SV that it is an RV.
2603 Dereferences an RV to return the SV.
2609 Copies an integer into the given SV.
2611 void sv_setiv _((SV* sv, IV num));
2615 Copies a double into the given SV.
2617 void sv_setnv _((SV* sv, double num));
2621 Copies a string into an SV. The string must be null-terminated.
2623 void sv_setpv _((SV* sv, char* ptr));
2627 Copies a string into an SV. The C<len> parameter indicates the number of
2630 void sv_setpvn _((SV* sv, char* ptr, STRLEN len));
2634 Processes its arguments like C<sprintf> and sets an SV to the formatted
2637 void sv_setpvf _((SV* sv, const char* pat, ...));
2641 Copies an integer into a new SV, optionally blessing the SV. The C<rv>
2642 argument will be upgraded to an RV. That RV will be modified to point to
2643 the new SV. The C<classname> argument indicates the package for the
2644 blessing. Set C<classname> to C<Nullch> to avoid the blessing. The new SV
2645 will be returned and will have a reference count of 1.
2647 SV* sv_setref_iv _((SV *rv, char *classname, IV iv));
2651 Copies a double into a new SV, optionally blessing the SV. The C<rv>
2652 argument will be upgraded to an RV. That RV will be modified to point to
2653 the new SV. The C<classname> argument indicates the package for the
2654 blessing. Set C<classname> to C<Nullch> to avoid the blessing. The new SV
2655 will be returned and will have a reference count of 1.
2657 SV* sv_setref_nv _((SV *rv, char *classname, double nv));
2661 Copies a pointer into a new SV, optionally blessing the SV. The C<rv>
2662 argument will be upgraded to an RV. That RV will be modified to point to
2663 the new SV. If the C<pv> argument is NULL then C<sv_undef> will be placed
2664 into the SV. The C<classname> argument indicates the package for the
2665 blessing. Set C<classname> to C<Nullch> to avoid the blessing. The new SV
2666 will be returned and will have a reference count of 1.
2668 SV* sv_setref_pv _((SV *rv, char *classname, void* pv));
2670 Do not use with integral Perl types such as HV, AV, SV, CV, because those
2671 objects will become corrupted by the pointer copy process.
2673 Note that C<sv_setref_pvn> copies the string while this copies the pointer.
2677 Copies a string into a new SV, optionally blessing the SV. The length of the
2678 string must be specified with C<n>. The C<rv> argument will be upgraded to
2679 an RV. That RV will be modified to point to the new SV. The C<classname>
2680 argument indicates the package for the blessing. Set C<classname> to
2681 C<Nullch> to avoid the blessing. The new SV will be returned and will have
2682 a reference count of 1.
2684 SV* sv_setref_pvn _((SV *rv, char *classname, char* pv, I32 n));
2686 Note that C<sv_setref_pv> copies the pointer while this copies the string.
2690 Copies the contents of the source SV C<ssv> into the destination SV C<dsv>.
2691 The source SV may be destroyed if it is mortal.
2693 void sv_setsv _((SV* dsv, SV* ssv));
2697 Returns the stash of the SV.
2699 HV * SvSTASH (SV* sv)
2703 Integer type flag for scalars. See C<svtype>.
2707 Pointer type flag for scalars. See C<svtype>.
2711 Type flag for arrays. See C<svtype>.
2715 Type flag for code refs. See C<svtype>.
2719 Type flag for hashes. See C<svtype>.
2723 Type flag for blessed scalars. See C<svtype>.
2727 Double type flag for scalars. See C<svtype>.
2731 Returns a boolean indicating whether Perl would evaluate the SV as true or
2732 false, defined or undefined.
2738 Returns the type of the SV. See C<svtype>.
2740 svtype SvTYPE (SV* sv)
2744 An enum of flags for Perl types. These are found in the file B<sv.h> in the
2745 C<svtype> enum. Test these flags with the C<SvTYPE> macro.
2749 Used to upgrade an SV to a more complex form. Uses C<sv_upgrade> to perform
2750 the upgrade if necessary. See C<svtype>.
2752 bool SvUPGRADE _((SV* sv, svtype mt));
2756 Upgrade an SV to a more complex form. Use C<SvUPGRADE>. See C<svtype>.
2760 This is the C<undef> SV. Always refer to this as C<&sv_undef>.
2764 Unsets the RV status of the SV, and decrements the reference count of
2765 whatever was being referenced by the RV. This can almost be thought of
2766 as a reversal of C<newSVrv>. See C<SvROK_off>.
2768 void sv_unref _((SV* sv));
2772 Tells an SV to use C<ptr> to find its string value. Normally the string is
2773 stored inside the SV but sv_usepvn allows the SV to use an outside string.
2774 The C<ptr> should point to memory that was allocated by C<malloc>. The
2775 string length, C<len>, must be supplied. This function will realloc the
2776 memory pointed to by C<ptr>, so that pointer should not be freed or used by
2777 the programmer after giving it to sv_usepvn.
2779 void sv_usepvn _((SV* sv, char* ptr, STRLEN len));
2783 This is the C<true> SV. See C<sv_no>. Always refer to this as C<&sv_yes>.
2787 Variable which is setup by C<xsubpp> to designate the object in a C++ XSUB.
2788 This is always the proper type for the C++ object. See C<CLASS> and
2789 L<perlxs/"Using XS With C++">.
2793 Converts the specified character to lowercase.
2795 int toLOWER (char c)
2799 Converts the specified character to uppercase.
2801 int toUPPER (char c)
2805 This is the XSUB-writer's interface to Perl's C<warn> function. Use this
2806 function the same way you use the C C<printf> function. See C<croak()>.
2810 Push an integer onto the stack, extending the stack if necessary. See
2817 Push a double onto the stack, extending the stack if necessary. See
2824 Push a string onto the stack, extending the stack if necessary. The C<len>
2825 indicates the length of the string. See C<PUSHp>.
2827 XPUSHp(char *c, int len)
2831 Push an SV onto the stack, extending the stack if necessary. See C<PUSHs>.
2837 Macro to declare an XSUB and its C parameter list. This is handled by
2842 Return from XSUB, indicating number of items on the stack. This is usually
2843 handled by C<xsubpp>.
2847 =item XSRETURN_EMPTY
2849 Return an empty list from an XSUB immediately.
2855 Return an integer from an XSUB immediately. Uses C<XST_mIV>.
2861 Return C<&sv_no> from an XSUB immediately. Uses C<XST_mNO>.
2867 Return an double from an XSUB immediately. Uses C<XST_mNV>.
2873 Return a copy of a string from an XSUB immediately. Uses C<XST_mPV>.
2875 XSRETURN_PV(char *v);
2877 =item XSRETURN_UNDEF
2879 Return C<&sv_undef> from an XSUB immediately. Uses C<XST_mUNDEF>.
2885 Return C<&sv_yes> from an XSUB immediately. Uses C<XST_mYES>.
2891 Place an integer into the specified position C<i> on the stack. The value is
2892 stored in a new mortal SV.
2894 XST_mIV( int i, IV v );
2898 Place a double into the specified position C<i> on the stack. The value is
2899 stored in a new mortal SV.
2901 XST_mNV( int i, NV v );
2905 Place C<&sv_no> into the specified position C<i> on the stack.
2911 Place a copy of a string into the specified position C<i> on the stack. The
2912 value is stored in a new mortal SV.
2914 XST_mPV( int i, char *v );
2918 Place C<&sv_undef> into the specified position C<i> on the stack.
2920 XST_mUNDEF( int i );
2924 Place C<&sv_yes> into the specified position C<i> on the stack.
2930 The version identifier for an XS module. This is usually handled
2931 automatically by C<ExtUtils::MakeMaker>. See C<XS_VERSION_BOOTCHECK>.
2933 =item XS_VERSION_BOOTCHECK
2935 Macro to verify that a PM module's $VERSION variable matches the XS module's
2936 C<XS_VERSION> variable. This is usually handled automatically by
2937 C<xsubpp>. See L<perlxs/"The VERSIONCHECK: Keyword">.
2941 The XSUB-writer's interface to the C C<memzero> function. The C<d> is the
2942 destination, C<n> is the number of items, and C<t> is the type.
2944 (void) Zero( d, n, t );
2950 Jeff Okamoto <F<okamoto@corp.hp.com>>
2952 With lots of help and suggestions from Dean Roehrich, Malcolm Beattie,
2953 Andreas Koenig, Paul Hudson, Ilya Zakharevich, Paul Marquess, Neil
2954 Bowers, Matthew Green, Tim Bunce, Spider Boardman, and Ulrich Pfeifer.
2956 API Listing by Dean Roehrich <F<roehrich@cray.com>>.
2960 Version 31.7: 1997/5/1