3 perlfunc - Perl builtin functions
7 The functions in this section can serve as terms in an expression.
8 They fall into two major categories: list operators and named unary
9 operators. These differ in their precedence relationship with a
10 following comma. (See the precedence table in L<perlop>.) List
11 operators take more than one argument, while unary operators can never
12 take more than one argument. Thus, a comma terminates the argument of
13 a unary operator, but merely separates the arguments of a list
14 operator. A unary operator generally provides a scalar context to its
15 argument, while a list operator may provide either scalar or list
16 contexts for its arguments. If it does both, the scalar arguments will
17 be first, and the list argument will follow. (Note that there can ever
18 be only one such list argument.) For instance, splice() has three scalar
19 arguments followed by a list, whereas gethostbyname() has four scalar
22 In the syntax descriptions that follow, list operators that expect a
23 list (and provide list context for the elements of the list) are shown
24 with LIST as an argument. Such a list may consist of any combination
25 of scalar arguments or list values; the list values will be included
26 in the list as if each individual element were interpolated at that
27 point in the list, forming a longer single-dimensional list value.
28 Elements of the LIST should be separated by commas.
30 Any function in the list below may be used either with or without
31 parentheses around its arguments. (The syntax descriptions omit the
32 parentheses.) If you use the parentheses, the simple (but occasionally
33 surprising) rule is this: It I<looks> like a function, therefore it I<is> a
34 function, and precedence doesn't matter. Otherwise it's a list
35 operator or unary operator, and precedence does matter. And whitespace
36 between the function and left parenthesis doesn't count--so you need to
39 print 1+2+4; # Prints 7.
40 print(1+2) + 4; # Prints 3.
41 print (1+2)+4; # Also prints 3!
42 print +(1+2)+4; # Prints 7.
43 print ((1+2)+4); # Prints 7.
45 If you run Perl with the B<-w> switch it can warn you about this. For
46 example, the third line above produces:
48 print (...) interpreted as function at - line 1.
49 Useless use of integer addition in void context at - line 1.
51 A few functions take no arguments at all, and therefore work as neither
52 unary nor list operators. These include such functions as C<time>
53 and C<endpwent>. For example, C<time+86_400> always means
56 For functions that can be used in either a scalar or list context,
57 nonabortive failure is generally indicated in a scalar context by
58 returning the undefined value, and in a list context by returning the
61 Remember the following important rule: There is B<no rule> that relates
62 the behavior of an expression in list context to its behavior in scalar
63 context, or vice versa. It might do two totally different things.
64 Each operator and function decides which sort of value it would be most
65 appropriate to return in scalar context. Some operators return the
66 length of the list that would have been returned in list context. Some
67 operators return the first value in the list. Some operators return the
68 last value in the list. Some operators return a count of successful
69 operations. In general, they do what you want, unless you want
72 An named array in scalar context is quite different from what would at
73 first glance appear to be a list in scalar context. You can't get a list
74 like C<(1,2,3)> into being in scalar context, because the compiler knows
75 the context at compile time. It would generate the scalar comma operator
76 there, not the list construction version of the comma. That means it
77 was never a list to start with.
79 In general, functions in Perl that serve as wrappers for system calls
80 of the same name (like chown(2), fork(2), closedir(2), etc.) all return
81 true when they succeed and C<undef> otherwise, as is usually mentioned
82 in the descriptions below. This is different from the C interfaces,
83 which return C<-1> on failure. Exceptions to this rule are C<wait>,
84 C<waitpid>, and C<syscall>. System calls also set the special C<$!>
85 variable on failure. Other functions do not, except accidentally.
87 =head2 Perl Functions by Category
89 Here are Perl's functions (including things that look like
90 functions, like some keywords and named operators)
91 arranged by category. Some functions appear in more
96 =item Functions for SCALARs or strings
98 C<chomp>, C<chop>, C<chr>, C<crypt>, C<hex>, C<index>, C<lc>, C<lcfirst>,
99 C<length>, C<oct>, C<ord>, C<pack>, C<q/STRING/>, C<qq/STRING/>, C<reverse>,
100 C<rindex>, C<sprintf>, C<substr>, C<tr///>, C<uc>, C<ucfirst>, C<y///>
102 =item Regular expressions and pattern matching
104 C<m//>, C<pos>, C<quotemeta>, C<s///>, C<split>, C<study>, C<qr//>
106 =item Numeric functions
108 C<abs>, C<atan2>, C<cos>, C<exp>, C<hex>, C<int>, C<log>, C<oct>, C<rand>,
109 C<sin>, C<sqrt>, C<srand>
111 =item Functions for real @ARRAYs
113 C<pop>, C<push>, C<shift>, C<splice>, C<unshift>
115 =item Functions for list data
117 C<grep>, C<join>, C<map>, C<qw/STRING/>, C<reverse>, C<sort>, C<unpack>
119 =item Functions for real %HASHes
121 C<delete>, C<each>, C<exists>, C<keys>, C<values>
123 =item Input and output functions
125 C<binmode>, C<close>, C<closedir>, C<dbmclose>, C<dbmopen>, C<die>, C<eof>,
126 C<fileno>, C<flock>, C<format>, C<getc>, C<print>, C<printf>, C<read>,
127 C<readdir>, C<rewinddir>, C<seek>, C<seekdir>, C<select>, C<syscall>,
128 C<sysread>, C<sysseek>, C<syswrite>, C<tell>, C<telldir>, C<truncate>,
131 =item Functions for fixed length data or records
133 C<pack>, C<read>, C<syscall>, C<sysread>, C<syswrite>, C<unpack>, C<vec>
135 =item Functions for filehandles, files, or directories
137 C<-I<X>>, C<chdir>, C<chmod>, C<chown>, C<chroot>, C<fcntl>, C<glob>,
138 C<ioctl>, C<link>, C<lstat>, C<mkdir>, C<open>, C<opendir>,
139 C<readlink>, C<rename>, C<rmdir>, C<stat>, C<symlink>, C<umask>,
142 =item Keywords related to the control flow of your perl program
144 C<caller>, C<continue>, C<die>, C<do>, C<dump>, C<eval>, C<exit>,
145 C<goto>, C<last>, C<next>, C<redo>, C<return>, C<sub>, C<wantarray>
147 =item Keywords related to scoping
149 C<caller>, C<import>, C<local>, C<my>, C<package>, C<use>
151 =item Miscellaneous functions
153 C<defined>, C<dump>, C<eval>, C<formline>, C<local>, C<my>, C<reset>,
154 C<scalar>, C<undef>, C<wantarray>
156 =item Functions for processes and process groups
158 C<alarm>, C<exec>, C<fork>, C<getpgrp>, C<getppid>, C<getpriority>, C<kill>,
159 C<pipe>, C<qx/STRING/>, C<setpgrp>, C<setpriority>, C<sleep>, C<system>,
160 C<times>, C<wait>, C<waitpid>
162 =item Keywords related to perl modules
164 C<do>, C<import>, C<no>, C<package>, C<require>, C<use>
166 =item Keywords related to classes and object-orientedness
168 C<bless>, C<dbmclose>, C<dbmopen>, C<package>, C<ref>, C<tie>, C<tied>,
171 =item Low-level socket functions
173 C<accept>, C<bind>, C<connect>, C<getpeername>, C<getsockname>,
174 C<getsockopt>, C<listen>, C<recv>, C<send>, C<setsockopt>, C<shutdown>,
175 C<socket>, C<socketpair>
177 =item System V interprocess communication functions
179 C<msgctl>, C<msgget>, C<msgrcv>, C<msgsnd>, C<semctl>, C<semget>, C<semop>,
180 C<shmctl>, C<shmget>, C<shmread>, C<shmwrite>
182 =item Fetching user and group info
184 C<endgrent>, C<endhostent>, C<endnetent>, C<endpwent>, C<getgrent>,
185 C<getgrgid>, C<getgrnam>, C<getlogin>, C<getpwent>, C<getpwnam>,
186 C<getpwuid>, C<setgrent>, C<setpwent>
188 =item Fetching network info
190 C<endprotoent>, C<endservent>, C<gethostbyaddr>, C<gethostbyname>,
191 C<gethostent>, C<getnetbyaddr>, C<getnetbyname>, C<getnetent>,
192 C<getprotobyname>, C<getprotobynumber>, C<getprotoent>,
193 C<getservbyname>, C<getservbyport>, C<getservent>, C<sethostent>,
194 C<setnetent>, C<setprotoent>, C<setservent>
196 =item Time-related functions
198 C<gmtime>, C<localtime>, C<time>, C<times>
200 =item Functions new in perl5
202 C<abs>, C<bless>, C<chomp>, C<chr>, C<exists>, C<formline>, C<glob>,
203 C<import>, C<lc>, C<lcfirst>, C<map>, C<my>, C<no>, C<prototype>, C<qx>,
204 C<qw>, C<readline>, C<readpipe>, C<ref>, C<sub*>, C<sysopen>, C<tie>,
205 C<tied>, C<uc>, C<ucfirst>, C<untie>, C<use>
207 * - C<sub> was a keyword in perl4, but in perl5 it is an
208 operator, which can be used in expressions.
210 =item Functions obsoleted in perl5
212 C<dbmclose>, C<dbmopen>
218 Perl was born in Unix and can therefore access all common Unix
219 system calls. In non-Unix environments, the functionality of some
220 Unix system calls may not be available, or details of the available
221 functionality may differ slightly. The Perl functions affected
224 C<-X>, C<binmode>, C<chmod>, C<chown>, C<chroot>, C<crypt>,
225 C<dbmclose>, C<dbmopen>, C<dump>, C<endgrent>, C<endhostent>,
226 C<endnetent>, C<endprotoent>, C<endpwent>, C<endservent>, C<exec>,
227 C<fcntl>, C<flock>, C<fork>, C<getgrent>, C<getgrgid>, C<gethostent>,
228 C<getlogin>, C<getnetbyaddr>, C<getnetbyname>, C<getnetent>,
229 C<getppid>, C<getprgp>, C<getpriority>, C<getprotobynumber>,
230 C<getprotoent>, C<getpwent>, C<getpwnam>, C<getpwuid>,
231 C<getservbyport>, C<getservent>, C<getsockopt>, C<glob>, C<ioctl>,
232 C<kill>, C<link>, C<lstat>, C<msgctl>, C<msgget>, C<msgrcv>,
233 C<msgsnd>, C<open>, C<pipe>, C<readlink>, C<rename>, C<select>, C<semctl>,
234 C<semget>, C<semop>, C<setgrent>, C<sethostent>, C<setnetent>,
235 C<setpgrp>, C<setpriority>, C<setprotoent>, C<setpwent>,
236 C<setservent>, C<setsockopt>, C<shmctl>, C<shmget>, C<shmread>,
237 C<shmwrite>, C<socket>, C<socketpair>, C<stat>, C<symlink>, C<syscall>,
238 C<sysopen>, C<system>, C<times>, C<truncate>, C<umask>, C<unlink>,
239 C<utime>, C<wait>, C<waitpid>
241 For more information about the portability of these functions, see
242 L<perlport> and other available platform-specific documentation.
244 =head2 Alphabetical Listing of Perl Functions
248 =item I<-X> FILEHANDLE
254 A file test, where X is one of the letters listed below. This unary
255 operator takes one argument, either a filename or a filehandle, and
256 tests the associated file to see if something is true about it. If the
257 argument is omitted, tests C<$_>, except for C<-t>, which tests STDIN.
258 Unless otherwise documented, it returns C<1> for true and C<''> for false, or
259 the undefined value if the file doesn't exist. Despite the funny
260 names, precedence is the same as any other named unary operator, and
261 the argument may be parenthesized like any other unary operator. The
262 operator may be any of:
263 X<-r>X<-w>X<-x>X<-o>X<-R>X<-W>X<-X>X<-O>X<-e>X<-z>X<-s>X<-f>X<-d>X<-l>X<-p>
264 X<-S>X<-b>X<-c>X<-t>X<-u>X<-g>X<-k>X<-T>X<-B>X<-M>X<-A>X<-C>
266 -r File is readable by effective uid/gid.
267 -w File is writable by effective uid/gid.
268 -x File is executable by effective uid/gid.
269 -o File is owned by effective uid.
271 -R File is readable by real uid/gid.
272 -W File is writable by real uid/gid.
273 -X File is executable by real uid/gid.
274 -O File is owned by real uid.
277 -z File has zero size.
278 -s File has nonzero size (returns size).
280 -f File is a plain file.
281 -d File is a directory.
282 -l File is a symbolic link.
283 -p File is a named pipe (FIFO), or Filehandle is a pipe.
285 -b File is a block special file.
286 -c File is a character special file.
287 -t Filehandle is opened to a tty.
289 -u File has setuid bit set.
290 -g File has setgid bit set.
291 -k File has sticky bit set.
293 -T File is an ASCII text file.
294 -B File is a "binary" file (opposite of -T).
296 -M Age of file in days when script started.
297 -A Same for access time.
298 -C Same for inode change time.
304 next unless -f $_; # ignore specials
308 The interpretation of the file permission operators C<-r>, C<-R>,
309 C<-w>, C<-W>, C<-x>, and C<-X> is by default based solely on the mode
310 of the file and the uids and gids of the user. There may be other
311 reasons you can't actually read, write, or execute the file. Such
312 reasons may be for example network filesystem access controls, ACLs
313 (access control lists), read-only filesystems, and unrecognized
316 Also note that, for the superuser on the local filesystems, the C<-r>,
317 C<-R>, C<-w>, and C<-W> tests always return 1, and C<-x> and C<-X> return 1
318 if any execute bit is set in the mode. Scripts run by the superuser
319 may thus need to do a stat() to determine the actual mode of the file,
320 or temporarily set their effective uid to something else.
322 If you are using ACLs, there is a pragma called C<filetest> that may
323 produce more accurate results than the bare stat() mode bits.
324 When under the C<use filetest 'access'> the above-mentioned filetests
325 will test whether the permission can (not) be granted using the
326 access() family of system calls. Also note that the C<-x> and C<-X> may
327 under this pragma return true even if there are no execute permission
328 bits set (nor any extra execute permission ACLs). This strangeness is
329 due to the underlying system calls' definitions. Read the
330 documentation for the C<filetest> pragma for more information.
332 Note that C<-s/a/b/> does not do a negated substitution. Saying
333 C<-exp($foo)> still works as expected, however--only single letters
334 following a minus are interpreted as file tests.
336 The C<-T> and C<-B> switches work as follows. The first block or so of the
337 file is examined for odd characters such as strange control codes or
338 characters with the high bit set. If too many strange characters (>30%)
339 are found, it's a C<-B> file, otherwise it's a C<-T> file. Also, any file
340 containing null in the first block is considered a binary file. If C<-T>
341 or C<-B> is used on a filehandle, the current stdio buffer is examined
342 rather than the first block. Both C<-T> and C<-B> return true on a null
343 file, or a file at EOF when testing a filehandle. Because you have to
344 read a file to do the C<-T> test, on most occasions you want to use a C<-f>
345 against the file first, as in C<next unless -f $file && -T $file>.
347 If any of the file tests (or either the C<stat> or C<lstat> operators) are given
348 the special filehandle consisting of a solitary underline, then the stat
349 structure of the previous file test (or stat operator) is used, saving
350 a system call. (This doesn't work with C<-t>, and you need to remember
351 that lstat() and C<-l> will leave values in the stat structure for the
352 symbolic link, not the real file.) Example:
354 print "Can do.\n" if -r $a || -w _ || -x _;
357 print "Readable\n" if -r _;
358 print "Writable\n" if -w _;
359 print "Executable\n" if -x _;
360 print "Setuid\n" if -u _;
361 print "Setgid\n" if -g _;
362 print "Sticky\n" if -k _;
363 print "Text\n" if -T _;
364 print "Binary\n" if -B _;
370 Returns the absolute value of its argument.
371 If VALUE is omitted, uses C<$_>.
373 =item accept NEWSOCKET,GENERICSOCKET
375 Accepts an incoming socket connect, just as the accept(2) system call
376 does. Returns the packed address if it succeeded, false otherwise.
377 See the example in L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">.
379 On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will
380 be set for the newly opened file descriptor, as determined by the
381 value of $^F. See L<perlvar/$^F>.
387 Arranges to have a SIGALRM delivered to this process after the
388 specified number of seconds have elapsed. If SECONDS is not specified,
389 the value stored in C<$_> is used. (On some machines,
390 unfortunately, the elapsed time may be up to one second less than you
391 specified because of how seconds are counted.) Only one timer may be
392 counting at once. Each call disables the previous timer, and an
393 argument of C<0> may be supplied to cancel the previous timer without
394 starting a new one. The returned value is the amount of time remaining
395 on the previous timer.
397 For delays of finer granularity than one second, you may use Perl's
398 four-argument version of select() leaving the first three arguments
399 undefined, or you might be able to use the C<syscall> interface to
400 access setitimer(2) if your system supports it. The Time::HiRes module
401 from CPAN may also prove useful.
403 It is usually a mistake to intermix C<alarm> and C<sleep> calls.
404 (C<sleep> may be internally implemented in your system with C<alarm>)
406 If you want to use C<alarm> to time out a system call you need to use an
407 C<eval>/C<die> pair. You can't rely on the alarm causing the system call to
408 fail with C<$!> set to C<EINTR> because Perl sets up signal handlers to
409 restart system calls on some systems. Using C<eval>/C<die> always works,
410 modulo the caveats given in L<perlipc/"Signals">.
413 local $SIG{ALRM} = sub { die "alarm\n" }; # NB: \n required
415 $nread = sysread SOCKET, $buffer, $size;
419 die unless $@ eq "alarm\n"; # propagate unexpected errors
428 Returns the arctangent of Y/X in the range -PI to PI.
430 For the tangent operation, you may use the C<Math::Trig::tan>
431 function, or use the familiar relation:
433 sub tan { sin($_[0]) / cos($_[0]) }
435 =item bind SOCKET,NAME
437 Binds a network address to a socket, just as the bind system call
438 does. Returns true if it succeeded, false otherwise. NAME should be a
439 packed address of the appropriate type for the socket. See the examples in
440 L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">.
442 =item binmode FILEHANDLE, DISCIPLINE
444 =item binmode FILEHANDLE
446 Arranges for FILEHANDLE to be read or written in "binary" or "text" mode
447 on systems where the run-time libraries distinguish between binary and
448 text files. If FILEHANDLE is an expression, the value is taken as the
449 name of the filehandle. DISCIPLINE can be either of C<":raw"> for
450 binary mode or C<":crlf"> for "text" mode. If the DISCIPLINE is
451 omitted, it defaults to C<":raw">.
453 binmode() should be called after open() but before any I/O is done on
456 On many systems binmode() currently has no effect, but in future, it
457 will be extended to support user-defined input and output disciplines.
458 On some systems binmode() is necessary when you're not working with a
459 text file. For the sake of portability it is a good idea to always use
460 it when appropriate, and to never use it when it isn't appropriate.
462 In other words: Regardless of platform, use binmode() on binary
463 files, and do not use binmode() on text files.
465 The C<open> pragma can be used to establish default disciplines.
468 The operating system, device drivers, C libraries, and Perl run-time
469 system all work together to let the programmer treat a single
470 character (C<\n>) as the line terminator, irrespective of the external
471 representation. On many operating systems, the native text file
472 representation matches the internal representation, but on some
473 platforms the external representation of C<\n> is made up of more than
476 Mac OS and all variants of Unix use a single character to end each line
477 in the external representation of text (even though that single
478 character is not necessarily the same across these platforms).
479 Consequently binmode() has no effect on these operating systems. In
480 other systems like VMS, MS-DOS and the various flavors of MS-Windows
481 your program sees a C<\n> as a simple C<\cJ>, but what's stored in text
482 files are the two characters C<\cM\cJ>. That means that, if you don't
483 use binmode() on these systems, C<\cM\cJ> sequences on disk will be
484 converted to C<\n> on input, and any C<\n> in your program will be
485 converted back to C<\cM\cJ> on output. This is what you want for text
486 files, but it can be disastrous for binary files.
488 Another consequence of using binmode() (on some systems) is that
489 special end-of-file markers will be seen as part of the data stream.
490 For systems from the Microsoft family this means that if your binary
491 data contains C<\cZ>, the I/O subsystem will ragard it as the end of
492 the file, unless you use binmode().
494 binmode() is not only important for readline() and print() operations,
495 but also when using read(), seek(), sysread(), syswrite() and tell()
496 (see L<perlport> for more details). See the C<$/> and C<$\> variables
497 in L<perlvar> for how to manually set your input and output
498 line-termination sequences.
500 =item bless REF,CLASSNAME
504 This function tells the thingy referenced by REF that it is now an object
505 in the CLASSNAME package. If CLASSNAME is omitted, the current package
506 is used. Because a C<bless> is often the last thing in a constructor,
507 it returns the reference for convenience. Always use the two-argument
508 version if the function doing the blessing might be inherited by a
509 derived class. See L<perltoot> and L<perlobj> for more about the blessing
510 (and blessings) of objects.
512 Consider always blessing objects in CLASSNAMEs that are mixed case.
513 Namespaces with all lowercase names are considered reserved for
514 Perl pragmata. Builtin types have all uppercase names, so to prevent
515 confusion, you may wish to avoid such package names as well. Make sure
516 that CLASSNAME is a true value.
518 See L<perlmod/"Perl Modules">.
524 Returns the context of the current subroutine call. In scalar context,
525 returns the caller's package name if there is a caller, that is, if
526 we're in a subroutine or C<eval> or C<require>, and the undefined value
527 otherwise. In list context, returns
529 ($package, $filename, $line) = caller;
531 With EXPR, it returns some extra information that the debugger uses to
532 print a stack trace. The value of EXPR indicates how many call frames
533 to go back before the current one.
535 ($package, $filename, $line, $subroutine, $hasargs,
536 $wantarray, $evaltext, $is_require, $hints, $bitmask) = caller($i);
538 Here $subroutine may be C<(eval)> if the frame is not a subroutine
539 call, but an C<eval>. In such a case additional elements $evaltext and
540 C<$is_require> are set: C<$is_require> is true if the frame is created by a
541 C<require> or C<use> statement, $evaltext contains the text of the
542 C<eval EXPR> statement. In particular, for a C<eval BLOCK> statement,
543 $filename is C<(eval)>, but $evaltext is undefined. (Note also that
544 each C<use> statement creates a C<require> frame inside an C<eval EXPR>)
545 frame. C<$hints> and C<$bitmask> contain pragmatic hints that the caller
546 was compiled with. The C<$hints> and C<$bitmask> values are subject to
547 change between versions of Perl, and are not meant for external use.
549 Furthermore, when called from within the DB package, caller returns more
550 detailed information: it sets the list variable C<@DB::args> to be the
551 arguments with which the subroutine was invoked.
553 Be aware that the optimizer might have optimized call frames away before
554 C<caller> had a chance to get the information. That means that C<caller(N)>
555 might not return information about the call frame you expect it do, for
556 C<< N > 1 >>. In particular, C<@DB::args> might have information from the
557 previous time C<caller> was called.
561 Changes the working directory to EXPR, if possible. If EXPR is omitted,
562 changes to the directory specified by C<$ENV{HOME}>, if set; if not,
563 changes to the directory specified by C<$ENV{LOGDIR}>. If neither is
564 set, C<chdir> does nothing. It returns true upon success, false
565 otherwise. See the example under C<die>.
569 Changes the permissions of a list of files. The first element of the
570 list must be the numerical mode, which should probably be an octal
571 number, and which definitely should I<not> a string of octal digits:
572 C<0644> is okay, C<'0644'> is not. Returns the number of files
573 successfully changed. See also L</oct>, if all you have is a string.
575 $cnt = chmod 0755, 'foo', 'bar';
576 chmod 0755, @executables;
577 $mode = '0644'; chmod $mode, 'foo'; # !!! sets mode to
579 $mode = '0644'; chmod oct($mode), 'foo'; # this is better
580 $mode = 0644; chmod $mode, 'foo'; # this is best
582 You can also import the symbolic C<S_I*> constants from the Fcntl
587 chmod S_IRWXU|S_IRGRP|S_IXGRP|S_IROTH|S_IXOTH, @executables;
588 # This is identical to the chmod 0755 of the above example.
596 This safer version of L</chop> removes any trailing string
597 that corresponds to the current value of C<$/> (also known as
598 $INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR in the C<English> module). It returns the total
599 number of characters removed from all its arguments. It's often used to
600 remove the newline from the end of an input record when you're worried
601 that the final record may be missing its newline. When in paragraph
602 mode (C<$/ = "">), it removes all trailing newlines from the string.
603 When in slurp mode (C<$/ = undef>) or fixed-length record mode (C<$/> is
604 a reference to an integer or the like, see L<perlvar>) chomp() won't
606 If VARIABLE is omitted, it chomps C<$_>. Example:
609 chomp; # avoid \n on last field
614 You can actually chomp anything that's an lvalue, including an assignment:
617 chomp($answer = <STDIN>);
619 If you chomp a list, each element is chomped, and the total number of
620 characters removed is returned.
628 Chops off the last character of a string and returns the character
629 chopped. It's used primarily to remove the newline from the end of an
630 input record, but is much more efficient than C<s/\n//> because it neither
631 scans nor copies the string. If VARIABLE is omitted, chops C<$_>.
635 chop; # avoid \n on last field
640 You can actually chop anything that's an lvalue, including an assignment:
643 chop($answer = <STDIN>);
645 If you chop a list, each element is chopped. Only the value of the
646 last C<chop> is returned.
648 Note that C<chop> returns the last character. To return all but the last
649 character, use C<substr($string, 0, -1)>.
653 Changes the owner (and group) of a list of files. The first two
654 elements of the list must be the I<numeric> uid and gid, in that
655 order. A value of -1 in either position is interpreted by most
656 systems to leave that value unchanged. Returns the number of files
657 successfully changed.
659 $cnt = chown $uid, $gid, 'foo', 'bar';
660 chown $uid, $gid, @filenames;
662 Here's an example that looks up nonnumeric uids in the passwd file:
665 chomp($user = <STDIN>);
667 chomp($pattern = <STDIN>);
669 ($login,$pass,$uid,$gid) = getpwnam($user)
670 or die "$user not in passwd file";
672 @ary = glob($pattern); # expand filenames
673 chown $uid, $gid, @ary;
675 On most systems, you are not allowed to change the ownership of the
676 file unless you're the superuser, although you should be able to change
677 the group to any of your secondary groups. On insecure systems, these
678 restrictions may be relaxed, but this is not a portable assumption.
679 On POSIX systems, you can detect this condition this way:
681 use POSIX qw(sysconf _PC_CHOWN_RESTRICTED);
682 $can_chown_giveaway = not sysconf(_PC_CHOWN_RESTRICTED);
688 Returns the character represented by that NUMBER in the character set.
689 For example, C<chr(65)> is C<"A"> in either ASCII or Unicode, and
690 chr(0x263a) is a Unicode smiley face (but only within the scope of
691 a C<use utf8>). For the reverse, use L</ord>.
692 See L<utf8> for more about Unicode.
694 If NUMBER is omitted, uses C<$_>.
696 =item chroot FILENAME
700 This function works like the system call by the same name: it makes the
701 named directory the new root directory for all further pathnames that
702 begin with a C</> by your process and all its children. (It doesn't
703 change your current working directory, which is unaffected.) For security
704 reasons, this call is restricted to the superuser. If FILENAME is
705 omitted, does a C<chroot> to C<$_>.
707 =item close FILEHANDLE
711 Closes the file or pipe associated with the file handle, returning true
712 only if stdio successfully flushes buffers and closes the system file
713 descriptor. Closes the currently selected filehandle if the argument
716 You don't have to close FILEHANDLE if you are immediately going to do
717 another C<open> on it, because C<open> will close it for you. (See
718 C<open>.) However, an explicit C<close> on an input file resets the line
719 counter (C<$.>), while the implicit close done by C<open> does not.
721 If the file handle came from a piped open C<close> will additionally
722 return false if one of the other system calls involved fails or if the
723 program exits with non-zero status. (If the only problem was that the
724 program exited non-zero C<$!> will be set to C<0>.) Closing a pipe
725 also waits for the process executing on the pipe to complete, in case you
726 want to look at the output of the pipe afterwards, and
727 implicitly puts the exit status value of that command into C<$?>.
729 Prematurely closing the read end of a pipe (i.e. before the process
730 writing to it at the other end has closed it) will result in a
731 SIGPIPE being delivered to the writer. If the other end can't
732 handle that, be sure to read all the data before closing the pipe.
736 open(OUTPUT, '|sort >foo') # pipe to sort
737 or die "Can't start sort: $!";
738 #... # print stuff to output
739 close OUTPUT # wait for sort to finish
740 or warn $! ? "Error closing sort pipe: $!"
741 : "Exit status $? from sort";
742 open(INPUT, 'foo') # get sort's results
743 or die "Can't open 'foo' for input: $!";
745 FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value can be used as an indirect
746 filehandle, usually the real filehandle name.
748 =item closedir DIRHANDLE
750 Closes a directory opened by C<opendir> and returns the success of that
753 DIRHANDLE may be an expression whose value can be used as an indirect
754 dirhandle, usually the real dirhandle name.
756 =item connect SOCKET,NAME
758 Attempts to connect to a remote socket, just as the connect system call
759 does. Returns true if it succeeded, false otherwise. NAME should be a
760 packed address of the appropriate type for the socket. See the examples in
761 L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">.
765 Actually a flow control statement rather than a function. If there is a
766 C<continue> BLOCK attached to a BLOCK (typically in a C<while> or
767 C<foreach>), it is always executed just before the conditional is about to
768 be evaluated again, just like the third part of a C<for> loop in C. Thus
769 it can be used to increment a loop variable, even when the loop has been
770 continued via the C<next> statement (which is similar to the C C<continue>
773 C<last>, C<next>, or C<redo> may appear within a C<continue>
774 block. C<last> and C<redo> will behave as if they had been executed within
775 the main block. So will C<next>, but since it will execute a C<continue>
776 block, it may be more entertaining.
779 ### redo always comes here
782 ### next always comes here
784 # then back the top to re-check EXPR
786 ### last always comes here
788 Omitting the C<continue> section is semantically equivalent to using an
789 empty one, logically enough. In that case, C<next> goes directly back
790 to check the condition at the top of the loop.
794 Returns the cosine of EXPR (expressed in radians). If EXPR is omitted,
795 takes cosine of C<$_>.
797 For the inverse cosine operation, you may use the C<Math::Trig::acos()>
798 function, or use this relation:
800 sub acos { atan2( sqrt(1 - $_[0] * $_[0]), $_[0] ) }
802 =item crypt PLAINTEXT,SALT
804 Encrypts a string exactly like the crypt(3) function in the C library
805 (assuming that you actually have a version there that has not been
806 extirpated as a potential munition). This can prove useful for checking
807 the password file for lousy passwords, amongst other things. Only the
808 guys wearing white hats should do this.
810 Note that C<crypt> is intended to be a one-way function, much like breaking
811 eggs to make an omelette. There is no (known) corresponding decrypt
812 function. As a result, this function isn't all that useful for
813 cryptography. (For that, see your nearby CPAN mirror.)
815 When verifying an existing encrypted string you should use the encrypted
816 text as the salt (like C<crypt($plain, $crypted) eq $crypted>). This
817 allows your code to work with the standard C<crypt> and with more
818 exotic implementations. When choosing a new salt create a random two
819 character string whose characters come from the set C<[./0-9A-Za-z]>
820 (like C<join '', ('.', '/', 0..9, 'A'..'Z', 'a'..'z')[rand 64, rand 64]>).
822 Here's an example that makes sure that whoever runs this program knows
825 $pwd = (getpwuid($<))[1];
829 chomp($word = <STDIN>);
833 if (crypt($word, $pwd) ne $pwd) {
839 Of course, typing in your own password to whoever asks you
842 The L<crypt> function is unsuitable for encrypting large quantities
843 of data, not least of all because you can't get the information
844 back. Look at the F<by-module/Crypt> and F<by-module/PGP> directories
845 on your favorite CPAN mirror for a slew of potentially useful
850 [This function has been largely superseded by the C<untie> function.]
852 Breaks the binding between a DBM file and a hash.
854 =item dbmopen HASH,DBNAME,MASK
856 [This function has been largely superseded by the C<tie> function.]
858 This binds a dbm(3), ndbm(3), sdbm(3), gdbm(3), or Berkeley DB file to a
859 hash. HASH is the name of the hash. (Unlike normal C<open>, the first
860 argument is I<not> a filehandle, even though it looks like one). DBNAME
861 is the name of the database (without the F<.dir> or F<.pag> extension if
862 any). If the database does not exist, it is created with protection
863 specified by MASK (as modified by the C<umask>). If your system supports
864 only the older DBM functions, you may perform only one C<dbmopen> in your
865 program. In older versions of Perl, if your system had neither DBM nor
866 ndbm, calling C<dbmopen> produced a fatal error; it now falls back to
869 If you don't have write access to the DBM file, you can only read hash
870 variables, not set them. If you want to test whether you can write,
871 either use file tests or try setting a dummy hash entry inside an C<eval>,
872 which will trap the error.
874 Note that functions such as C<keys> and C<values> may return huge lists
875 when used on large DBM files. You may prefer to use the C<each>
876 function to iterate over large DBM files. Example:
878 # print out history file offsets
879 dbmopen(%HIST,'/usr/lib/news/history',0666);
880 while (($key,$val) = each %HIST) {
881 print $key, ' = ', unpack('L',$val), "\n";
885 See also L<AnyDBM_File> for a more general description of the pros and
886 cons of the various dbm approaches, as well as L<DB_File> for a particularly
889 You can control which DBM library you use by loading that library
890 before you call dbmopen():
893 dbmopen(%NS_Hist, "$ENV{HOME}/.netscape/history.db")
894 or die "Can't open netscape history file: $!";
900 Returns a Boolean value telling whether EXPR has a value other than
901 the undefined value C<undef>. If EXPR is not present, C<$_> will be
904 Many operations return C<undef> to indicate failure, end of file,
905 system error, uninitialized variable, and other exceptional
906 conditions. This function allows you to distinguish C<undef> from
907 other values. (A simple Boolean test will not distinguish among
908 C<undef>, zero, the empty string, and C<"0">, which are all equally
909 false.) Note that since C<undef> is a valid scalar, its presence
910 doesn't I<necessarily> indicate an exceptional condition: C<pop>
911 returns C<undef> when its argument is an empty array, I<or> when the
912 element to return happens to be C<undef>.
914 You may also use C<defined(&func)> to check whether subroutine C<&func>
915 has ever been defined. The return value is unaffected by any forward
916 declarations of C<&foo>.
918 Use of C<defined> on aggregates (hashes and arrays) is deprecated. It
919 used to report whether memory for that aggregate has ever been
920 allocated. This behavior may disappear in future versions of Perl.
921 You should instead use a simple test for size:
923 if (@an_array) { print "has array elements\n" }
924 if (%a_hash) { print "has hash members\n" }
926 When used on a hash element, it tells you whether the value is defined,
927 not whether the key exists in the hash. Use L</exists> for the latter
932 print if defined $switch{'D'};
933 print "$val\n" while defined($val = pop(@ary));
934 die "Can't readlink $sym: $!"
935 unless defined($value = readlink $sym);
936 sub foo { defined &$bar ? &$bar(@_) : die "No bar"; }
937 $debugging = 0 unless defined $debugging;
939 Note: Many folks tend to overuse C<defined>, and then are surprised to
940 discover that the number C<0> and C<""> (the zero-length string) are, in fact,
941 defined values. For example, if you say
945 The pattern match succeeds, and C<$1> is defined, despite the fact that it
946 matched "nothing". But it didn't really match nothing--rather, it
947 matched something that happened to be zero characters long. This is all
948 very above-board and honest. When a function returns an undefined value,
949 it's an admission that it couldn't give you an honest answer. So you
950 should use C<defined> only when you're questioning the integrity of what
951 you're trying to do. At other times, a simple comparison to C<0> or C<""> is
954 See also L</undef>, L</exists>, L</ref>.
958 Given an expression that specifies a hash element, array element, hash slice,
959 or array slice, deletes the specified element(s) from the hash or array.
960 In the case of an array, if the array elements happen to be at the end,
961 the size of the array will shrink to the highest element that tests
962 true for exists() (or 0 if no such element exists).
964 Returns each element so deleted or the undefined value if there was no such
965 element. Deleting from C<$ENV{}> modifies the environment. Deleting from
966 a hash tied to a DBM file deletes the entry from the DBM file. Deleting
967 from a C<tie>d hash or array may not necessarily return anything.
969 Deleting an array element effectively returns that position of the array
970 to its initial, uninitialized state. Subsequently testing for the same
971 element with exists() will return false. Note that deleting array
972 elements in the middle of an array will not shift the index of the ones
973 after them down--use splice() for that. See L</exists>.
975 The following (inefficiently) deletes all the values of %HASH and @ARRAY:
977 foreach $key (keys %HASH) {
981 foreach $index (0 .. $#ARRAY) {
982 delete $ARRAY[$index];
987 delete @HASH{keys %HASH};
989 delete @ARRAY[0 .. $#ARRAY];
991 But both of these are slower than just assigning the empty list
992 or undefining %HASH or @ARRAY:
994 %HASH = (); # completely empty %HASH
995 undef %HASH; # forget %HASH ever existed
997 @ARRAY = (); # completely empty @ARRAY
998 undef @ARRAY; # forget @ARRAY ever existed
1000 Note that the EXPR can be arbitrarily complicated as long as the final
1001 operation is a hash element, array element, hash slice, or array slice
1004 delete $ref->[$x][$y]{$key};
1005 delete @{$ref->[$x][$y]}{$key1, $key2, @morekeys};
1007 delete $ref->[$x][$y][$index];
1008 delete @{$ref->[$x][$y]}[$index1, $index2, @moreindices];
1012 Outside an C<eval>, prints the value of LIST to C<STDERR> and
1013 exits with the current value of C<$!> (errno). If C<$!> is C<0>,
1014 exits with the value of C<<< ($? >> 8) >>> (backtick `command`
1015 status). If C<<< ($? >> 8) >>> is C<0>, exits with C<255>. Inside
1016 an C<eval(),> the error message is stuffed into C<$@> and the
1017 C<eval> is terminated with the undefined value. This makes
1018 C<die> the way to raise an exception.
1020 Equivalent examples:
1022 die "Can't cd to spool: $!\n" unless chdir '/usr/spool/news';
1023 chdir '/usr/spool/news' or die "Can't cd to spool: $!\n"
1025 If the value of EXPR does not end in a newline, the current script line
1026 number and input line number (if any) are also printed, and a newline
1027 is supplied. Note that the "input line number" (also known as "chunk")
1028 is subject to whatever notion of "line" happens to be currently in
1029 effect, and is also available as the special variable C<$.>.
1030 See L<perlvar/"$/"> and L<perlvar/"$.">.
1032 Hint: sometimes appending C<", stopped"> to your message
1033 will cause it to make better sense when the string C<"at foo line 123"> is
1034 appended. Suppose you are running script "canasta".
1036 die "/etc/games is no good";
1037 die "/etc/games is no good, stopped";
1039 produce, respectively
1041 /etc/games is no good at canasta line 123.
1042 /etc/games is no good, stopped at canasta line 123.
1044 See also exit(), warn(), and the Carp module.
1046 If LIST is empty and C<$@> already contains a value (typically from a
1047 previous eval) that value is reused after appending C<"\t...propagated">.
1048 This is useful for propagating exceptions:
1051 die unless $@ =~ /Expected exception/;
1053 If C<$@> is empty then the string C<"Died"> is used.
1055 die() can also be called with a reference argument. If this happens to be
1056 trapped within an eval(), $@ contains the reference. This behavior permits
1057 a more elaborate exception handling implementation using objects that
1058 maintain arbitary state about the nature of the exception. Such a scheme
1059 is sometimes preferable to matching particular string values of $@ using
1060 regular expressions. Here's an example:
1062 eval { ... ; die Some::Module::Exception->new( FOO => "bar" ) };
1064 if (ref($@) && UNIVERSAL::isa($@,"Some::Module::Exception")) {
1065 # handle Some::Module::Exception
1068 # handle all other possible exceptions
1072 Because perl will stringify uncaught exception messages before displaying
1073 them, you may want to overload stringification operations on such custom
1074 exception objects. See L<overload> for details about that.
1076 You can arrange for a callback to be run just before the C<die>
1077 does its deed, by setting the C<$SIG{__DIE__}> hook. The associated
1078 handler will be called with the error text and can change the error
1079 message, if it sees fit, by calling C<die> again. See
1080 L<perlvar/$SIG{expr}> for details on setting C<%SIG> entries, and
1081 L<"eval BLOCK"> for some examples. Although this feature was meant
1082 to be run only right before your program was to exit, this is not
1083 currently the case--the C<$SIG{__DIE__}> hook is currently called
1084 even inside eval()ed blocks/strings! If one wants the hook to do
1085 nothing in such situations, put
1089 as the first line of the handler (see L<perlvar/$^S>). Because
1090 this promotes strange action at a distance, this counterintuitive
1091 behavior may be fixed in a future release.
1095 Not really a function. Returns the value of the last command in the
1096 sequence of commands indicated by BLOCK. When modified by a loop
1097 modifier, executes the BLOCK once before testing the loop condition.
1098 (On other statements the loop modifiers test the conditional first.)
1100 C<do BLOCK> does I<not> count as a loop, so the loop control statements
1101 C<next>, C<last>, or C<redo> cannot be used to leave or restart the block.
1102 See L<perlsyn> for alternative strategies.
1104 =item do SUBROUTINE(LIST)
1106 A deprecated form of subroutine call. See L<perlsub>.
1110 Uses the value of EXPR as a filename and executes the contents of the
1111 file as a Perl script. Its primary use is to include subroutines
1112 from a Perl subroutine library.
1118 scalar eval `cat stat.pl`;
1120 except that it's more efficient and concise, keeps track of the current
1121 filename for error messages, searches the @INC libraries, and updates
1122 C<%INC> if the file is found. See L<perlvar/Predefined Names> for these
1123 variables. It also differs in that code evaluated with C<do FILENAME>
1124 cannot see lexicals in the enclosing scope; C<eval STRING> does. It's the
1125 same, however, in that it does reparse the file every time you call it,
1126 so you probably don't want to do this inside a loop.
1128 If C<do> cannot read the file, it returns undef and sets C<$!> to the
1129 error. If C<do> can read the file but cannot compile it, it
1130 returns undef and sets an error message in C<$@>. If the file is
1131 successfully compiled, C<do> returns the value of the last expression
1134 Note that inclusion of library modules is better done with the
1135 C<use> and C<require> operators, which also do automatic error checking
1136 and raise an exception if there's a problem.
1138 You might like to use C<do> to read in a program configuration
1139 file. Manual error checking can be done this way:
1141 # read in config files: system first, then user
1142 for $file ("/share/prog/defaults.rc",
1143 "$ENV{HOME}/.someprogrc")
1145 unless ($return = do $file) {
1146 warn "couldn't parse $file: $@" if $@;
1147 warn "couldn't do $file: $!" unless defined $return;
1148 warn "couldn't run $file" unless $return;
1156 This function causes an immediate core dump. See also the B<-u>
1157 command-line switch in L<perlrun>, which does the same thing.
1158 Primarily this is so that you can use the B<undump> program (not
1159 supplied) to turn your core dump into an executable binary after
1160 having initialized all your variables at the beginning of the
1161 program. When the new binary is executed it will begin by executing
1162 a C<goto LABEL> (with all the restrictions that C<goto> suffers).
1163 Think of it as a goto with an intervening core dump and reincarnation.
1164 If C<LABEL> is omitted, restarts the program from the top.
1166 B<WARNING>: Any files opened at the time of the dump will I<not>
1167 be open any more when the program is reincarnated, with possible
1168 resulting confusion on the part of Perl.
1170 This function is now largely obsolete, partly because it's very
1171 hard to convert a core file into an executable, and because the
1172 real compiler backends for generating portable bytecode and compilable
1173 C code have superseded it.
1175 If you're looking to use L<dump> to speed up your program, consider
1176 generating bytecode or native C code as described in L<perlcc>. If
1177 you're just trying to accelerate a CGI script, consider using the
1178 C<mod_perl> extension to B<Apache>, or the CPAN module, Fast::CGI.
1179 You might also consider autoloading or selfloading, which at least
1180 make your program I<appear> to run faster.
1184 When called in list context, returns a 2-element list consisting of the
1185 key and value for the next element of a hash, so that you can iterate over
1186 it. When called in scalar context, returns the key for only the "next"
1187 element in the hash.
1189 Entries are returned in an apparently random order. The actual random
1190 order is subject to change in future versions of perl, but it is guaranteed
1191 to be in the same order as either the C<keys> or C<values> function
1192 would produce on the same (unmodified) hash.
1194 When the hash is entirely read, a null array is returned in list context
1195 (which when assigned produces a false (C<0>) value), and C<undef> in
1196 scalar context. The next call to C<each> after that will start iterating
1197 again. There is a single iterator for each hash, shared by all C<each>,
1198 C<keys>, and C<values> function calls in the program; it can be reset by
1199 reading all the elements from the hash, or by evaluating C<keys HASH> or
1200 C<values HASH>. If you add or delete elements of a hash while you're
1201 iterating over it, you may get entries skipped or duplicated, so don't.
1203 The following prints out your environment like the printenv(1) program,
1204 only in a different order:
1206 while (($key,$value) = each %ENV) {
1207 print "$key=$value\n";
1210 See also C<keys>, C<values> and C<sort>.
1212 =item eof FILEHANDLE
1218 Returns 1 if the next read on FILEHANDLE will return end of file, or if
1219 FILEHANDLE is not open. FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value
1220 gives the real filehandle. (Note that this function actually
1221 reads a character and then C<ungetc>s it, so isn't very useful in an
1222 interactive context.) Do not read from a terminal file (or call
1223 C<eof(FILEHANDLE)> on it) after end-of-file is reached. File types such
1224 as terminals may lose the end-of-file condition if you do.
1226 An C<eof> without an argument uses the last file read. Using C<eof()>
1227 with empty parentheses is very different. It refers to the pseudo file
1228 formed from the files listed on the command line and accessed via the
1229 C<< <> >> operator. Since C<< <> >> isn't explicitly opened,
1230 as a normal filehandle is, an C<eof()> before C<< <> >> has been
1231 used will cause C<@ARGV> to be examined to determine if input is
1234 In a C<< while (<>) >> loop, C<eof> or C<eof(ARGV)> can be used to
1235 detect the end of each file, C<eof()> will only detect the end of the
1236 last file. Examples:
1238 # reset line numbering on each input file
1240 next if /^\s*#/; # skip comments
1243 close ARGV if eof; # Not eof()!
1246 # insert dashes just before last line of last file
1248 if (eof()) { # check for end of current file
1249 print "--------------\n";
1250 close(ARGV); # close or last; is needed if we
1251 # are reading from the terminal
1256 Practical hint: you almost never need to use C<eof> in Perl, because the
1257 input operators typically return C<undef> when they run out of data, or if
1264 In the first form, the return value of EXPR is parsed and executed as if it
1265 were a little Perl program. The value of the expression (which is itself
1266 determined within scalar context) is first parsed, and if there weren't any
1267 errors, executed in the context of the current Perl program, so that any
1268 variable settings or subroutine and format definitions remain afterwards.
1269 Note that the value is parsed every time the eval executes. If EXPR is
1270 omitted, evaluates C<$_>. This form is typically used to delay parsing
1271 and subsequent execution of the text of EXPR until run time.
1273 In the second form, the code within the BLOCK is parsed only once--at the
1274 same time the code surrounding the eval itself was parsed--and executed
1275 within the context of the current Perl program. This form is typically
1276 used to trap exceptions more efficiently than the first (see below), while
1277 also providing the benefit of checking the code within BLOCK at compile
1280 The final semicolon, if any, may be omitted from the value of EXPR or within
1283 In both forms, the value returned is the value of the last expression
1284 evaluated inside the mini-program; a return statement may be also used, just
1285 as with subroutines. The expression providing the return value is evaluated
1286 in void, scalar, or list context, depending on the context of the eval itself.
1287 See L</wantarray> for more on how the evaluation context can be determined.
1289 If there is a syntax error or runtime error, or a C<die> statement is
1290 executed, an undefined value is returned by C<eval>, and C<$@> is set to the
1291 error message. If there was no error, C<$@> is guaranteed to be a null
1292 string. Beware that using C<eval> neither silences perl from printing
1293 warnings to STDERR, nor does it stuff the text of warning messages into C<$@>.
1294 To do either of those, you have to use the C<$SIG{__WARN__}> facility. See
1295 L</warn> and L<perlvar>.
1297 Note that, because C<eval> traps otherwise-fatal errors, it is useful for
1298 determining whether a particular feature (such as C<socket> or C<symlink>)
1299 is implemented. It is also Perl's exception trapping mechanism, where
1300 the die operator is used to raise exceptions.
1302 If the code to be executed doesn't vary, you may use the eval-BLOCK
1303 form to trap run-time errors without incurring the penalty of
1304 recompiling each time. The error, if any, is still returned in C<$@>.
1307 # make divide-by-zero nonfatal
1308 eval { $answer = $a / $b; }; warn $@ if $@;
1310 # same thing, but less efficient
1311 eval '$answer = $a / $b'; warn $@ if $@;
1313 # a compile-time error
1314 eval { $answer = }; # WRONG
1317 eval '$answer ='; # sets $@
1319 Due to the current arguably broken state of C<__DIE__> hooks, when using
1320 the C<eval{}> form as an exception trap in libraries, you may wish not
1321 to trigger any C<__DIE__> hooks that user code may have installed.
1322 You can use the C<local $SIG{__DIE__}> construct for this purpose,
1323 as shown in this example:
1325 # a very private exception trap for divide-by-zero
1326 eval { local $SIG{'__DIE__'}; $answer = $a / $b; };
1329 This is especially significant, given that C<__DIE__> hooks can call
1330 C<die> again, which has the effect of changing their error messages:
1332 # __DIE__ hooks may modify error messages
1334 local $SIG{'__DIE__'} =
1335 sub { (my $x = $_[0]) =~ s/foo/bar/g; die $x };
1336 eval { die "foo lives here" };
1337 print $@ if $@; # prints "bar lives here"
1340 Because this promotes action at a distance, this counterintuitive behavior
1341 may be fixed in a future release.
1343 With an C<eval>, you should be especially careful to remember what's
1344 being looked at when:
1350 eval { $x }; # CASE 4
1352 eval "\$$x++"; # CASE 5
1355 Cases 1 and 2 above behave identically: they run the code contained in
1356 the variable $x. (Although case 2 has misleading double quotes making
1357 the reader wonder what else might be happening (nothing is).) Cases 3
1358 and 4 likewise behave in the same way: they run the code C<'$x'>, which
1359 does nothing but return the value of $x. (Case 4 is preferred for
1360 purely visual reasons, but it also has the advantage of compiling at
1361 compile-time instead of at run-time.) Case 5 is a place where
1362 normally you I<would> like to use double quotes, except that in this
1363 particular situation, you can just use symbolic references instead, as
1366 C<eval BLOCK> does I<not> count as a loop, so the loop control statements
1367 C<next>, C<last>, or C<redo> cannot be used to leave or restart the block.
1371 =item exec PROGRAM LIST
1373 The C<exec> function executes a system command I<and never returns>--
1374 use C<system> instead of C<exec> if you want it to return. It fails and
1375 returns false only if the command does not exist I<and> it is executed
1376 directly instead of via your system's command shell (see below).
1378 Since it's a common mistake to use C<exec> instead of C<system>, Perl
1379 warns you if there is a following statement which isn't C<die>, C<warn>,
1380 or C<exit> (if C<-w> is set - but you always do that). If you
1381 I<really> want to follow an C<exec> with some other statement, you
1382 can use one of these styles to avoid the warning:
1384 exec ('foo') or print STDERR "couldn't exec foo: $!";
1385 { exec ('foo') }; print STDERR "couldn't exec foo: $!";
1387 If there is more than one argument in LIST, or if LIST is an array
1388 with more than one value, calls execvp(3) with the arguments in LIST.
1389 If there is only one scalar argument or an array with one element in it,
1390 the argument is checked for shell metacharacters, and if there are any,
1391 the entire argument is passed to the system's command shell for parsing
1392 (this is C</bin/sh -c> on Unix platforms, but varies on other platforms).
1393 If there are no shell metacharacters in the argument, it is split into
1394 words and passed directly to C<execvp>, which is more efficient.
1397 exec '/bin/echo', 'Your arguments are: ', @ARGV;
1398 exec "sort $outfile | uniq";
1400 If you don't really want to execute the first argument, but want to lie
1401 to the program you are executing about its own name, you can specify
1402 the program you actually want to run as an "indirect object" (without a
1403 comma) in front of the LIST. (This always forces interpretation of the
1404 LIST as a multivalued list, even if there is only a single scalar in
1407 $shell = '/bin/csh';
1408 exec $shell '-sh'; # pretend it's a login shell
1412 exec {'/bin/csh'} '-sh'; # pretend it's a login shell
1414 When the arguments get executed via the system shell, results will
1415 be subject to its quirks and capabilities. See L<perlop/"`STRING`">
1418 Using an indirect object with C<exec> or C<system> is also more
1419 secure. This usage (which also works fine with system()) forces
1420 interpretation of the arguments as a multivalued list, even if the
1421 list had just one argument. That way you're safe from the shell
1422 expanding wildcards or splitting up words with whitespace in them.
1424 @args = ( "echo surprise" );
1426 exec @args; # subject to shell escapes
1428 exec { $args[0] } @args; # safe even with one-arg list
1430 The first version, the one without the indirect object, ran the I<echo>
1431 program, passing it C<"surprise"> an argument. The second version
1432 didn't--it tried to run a program literally called I<"echo surprise">,
1433 didn't find it, and set C<$?> to a non-zero value indicating failure.
1435 Beginning with v5.6.0, Perl will attempt to flush all files opened for
1436 output before the exec, but this may not be supported on some platforms
1437 (see L<perlport>). To be safe, you may need to set C<$|> ($AUTOFLUSH
1438 in English) or call the C<autoflush()> method of C<IO::Handle> on any
1439 open handles in order to avoid lost output.
1441 Note that C<exec> will not call your C<END> blocks, nor will it call
1442 any C<DESTROY> methods in your objects.
1446 Given an expression that specifies a hash element or array element,
1447 returns true if the specified element in the hash or array has ever
1448 been initialized, even if the corresponding value is undefined. The
1449 element is not autovivified if it doesn't exist.
1451 print "Exists\n" if exists $hash{$key};
1452 print "Defined\n" if defined $hash{$key};
1453 print "True\n" if $hash{$key};
1455 print "Exists\n" if exists $array[$index];
1456 print "Defined\n" if defined $array[$index];
1457 print "True\n" if $array[$index];
1459 A hash or array element can be true only if it's defined, and defined if
1460 it exists, but the reverse doesn't necessarily hold true.
1462 Given an expression that specifies the name of a subroutine,
1463 returns true if the specified subroutine has ever been declared, even
1464 if it is undefined. Mentioning a subroutine name for exists or defined
1465 does not count as declaring it.
1467 print "Exists\n" if exists &subroutine;
1468 print "Defined\n" if defined &subroutine;
1470 Note that the EXPR can be arbitrarily complicated as long as the final
1471 operation is a hash or array key lookup or subroutine name:
1473 if (exists $ref->{A}->{B}->{$key}) { }
1474 if (exists $hash{A}{B}{$key}) { }
1476 if (exists $ref->{A}->{B}->[$ix]) { }
1477 if (exists $hash{A}{B}[$ix]) { }
1479 if (exists &{$ref->{A}{B}{$key}}) { }
1481 Although the deepest nested array or hash will not spring into existence
1482 just because its existence was tested, any intervening ones will.
1483 Thus C<< $ref->{"A"} >> and C<< $ref->{"A"}->{"B"} >> will spring
1484 into existence due to the existence test for the $key element above.
1485 This happens anywhere the arrow operator is used, including even:
1488 if (exists $ref->{"Some key"}) { }
1489 print $ref; # prints HASH(0x80d3d5c)
1491 This surprising autovivification in what does not at first--or even
1492 second--glance appear to be an lvalue context may be fixed in a future
1495 See L<perlref/"Pseudo-hashes: Using an array as a hash"> for specifics
1496 on how exists() acts when used on a pseudo-hash.
1498 Use of a subroutine call, rather than a subroutine name, as an argument
1499 to exists() is an error.
1502 exists &sub(); # Error
1506 Evaluates EXPR and exits immediately with that value. Example:
1509 exit 0 if $ans =~ /^[Xx]/;
1511 See also C<die>. If EXPR is omitted, exits with C<0> status. The only
1512 universally recognized values for EXPR are C<0> for success and C<1>
1513 for error; other values are subject to interpretation depending on the
1514 environment in which the Perl program is running. For example, exiting
1515 69 (EX_UNAVAILABLE) from a I<sendmail> incoming-mail filter will cause
1516 the mailer to return the item undelivered, but that's not true everywhere.
1518 Don't use C<exit> to abort a subroutine if there's any chance that
1519 someone might want to trap whatever error happened. Use C<die> instead,
1520 which can be trapped by an C<eval>.
1522 The exit() function does not always exit immediately. It calls any
1523 defined C<END> routines first, but these C<END> routines may not
1524 themselves abort the exit. Likewise any object destructors that need to
1525 be called are called before the real exit. If this is a problem, you
1526 can call C<POSIX:_exit($status)> to avoid END and destructor processing.
1527 See L<perlmod> for details.
1533 Returns I<e> (the natural logarithm base) to the power of EXPR.
1534 If EXPR is omitted, gives C<exp($_)>.
1536 =item fcntl FILEHANDLE,FUNCTION,SCALAR
1538 Implements the fcntl(2) function. You'll probably have to say
1542 first to get the correct constant definitions. Argument processing and
1543 value return works just like C<ioctl> below.
1547 fcntl($filehandle, F_GETFL, $packed_return_buffer)
1548 or die "can't fcntl F_GETFL: $!";
1550 You don't have to check for C<defined> on the return from C<fnctl>.
1551 Like C<ioctl>, it maps a C<0> return from the system call into
1552 C<"0 but true"> in Perl. This string is true in boolean context and C<0>
1553 in numeric context. It is also exempt from the normal B<-w> warnings
1554 on improper numeric conversions.
1556 Note that C<fcntl> will produce a fatal error if used on a machine that
1557 doesn't implement fcntl(2). See the Fcntl module or your fcntl(2)
1558 manpage to learn what functions are available on your system.
1560 =item fileno FILEHANDLE
1562 Returns the file descriptor for a filehandle, or undefined if the
1563 filehandle is not open. This is mainly useful for constructing
1564 bitmaps for C<select> and low-level POSIX tty-handling operations.
1565 If FILEHANDLE is an expression, the value is taken as an indirect
1566 filehandle, generally its name.
1568 You can use this to find out whether two handles refer to the
1569 same underlying descriptor:
1571 if (fileno(THIS) == fileno(THAT)) {
1572 print "THIS and THAT are dups\n";
1575 =item flock FILEHANDLE,OPERATION
1577 Calls flock(2), or an emulation of it, on FILEHANDLE. Returns true
1578 for success, false on failure. Produces a fatal error if used on a
1579 machine that doesn't implement flock(2), fcntl(2) locking, or lockf(3).
1580 C<flock> is Perl's portable file locking interface, although it locks
1581 only entire files, not records.
1583 Two potentially non-obvious but traditional C<flock> semantics are
1584 that it waits indefinitely until the lock is granted, and that its locks
1585 B<merely advisory>. Such discretionary locks are more flexible, but offer
1586 fewer guarantees. This means that files locked with C<flock> may be
1587 modified by programs that do not also use C<flock>. See L<perlport>,
1588 your port's specific documentation, or your system-specific local manpages
1589 for details. It's best to assume traditional behavior if you're writing
1590 portable programs. (But if you're not, you should as always feel perfectly
1591 free to write for your own system's idiosyncrasies (sometimes called
1592 "features"). Slavish adherence to portability concerns shouldn't get
1593 in the way of your getting your job done.)
1595 OPERATION is one of LOCK_SH, LOCK_EX, or LOCK_UN, possibly combined with
1596 LOCK_NB. These constants are traditionally valued 1, 2, 8 and 4, but
1597 you can use the symbolic names if you import them from the Fcntl module,
1598 either individually, or as a group using the ':flock' tag. LOCK_SH
1599 requests a shared lock, LOCK_EX requests an exclusive lock, and LOCK_UN
1600 releases a previously requested lock. If LOCK_NB is bitwise-or'ed with
1601 LOCK_SH or LOCK_EX then C<flock> will return immediately rather than blocking
1602 waiting for the lock (check the return status to see if you got it).
1604 To avoid the possibility of miscoordination, Perl now flushes FILEHANDLE
1605 before locking or unlocking it.
1607 Note that the emulation built with lockf(3) doesn't provide shared
1608 locks, and it requires that FILEHANDLE be open with write intent. These
1609 are the semantics that lockf(3) implements. Most if not all systems
1610 implement lockf(3) in terms of fcntl(2) locking, though, so the
1611 differing semantics shouldn't bite too many people.
1613 Note also that some versions of C<flock> cannot lock things over the
1614 network; you would need to use the more system-specific C<fcntl> for
1615 that. If you like you can force Perl to ignore your system's flock(2)
1616 function, and so provide its own fcntl(2)-based emulation, by passing
1617 the switch C<-Ud_flock> to the F<Configure> program when you configure
1620 Here's a mailbox appender for BSD systems.
1622 use Fcntl ':flock'; # import LOCK_* constants
1625 flock(MBOX,LOCK_EX);
1626 # and, in case someone appended
1627 # while we were waiting...
1632 flock(MBOX,LOCK_UN);
1635 open(MBOX, ">>/usr/spool/mail/$ENV{'USER'}")
1636 or die "Can't open mailbox: $!";
1639 print MBOX $msg,"\n\n";
1642 On systems that support a real flock(), locks are inherited across fork()
1643 calls, whereas those that must resort to the more capricious fcntl()
1644 function lose the locks, making it harder to write servers.
1646 See also L<DB_File> for other flock() examples.
1650 Does a fork(2) system call to create a new process running the
1651 same program at the same point. It returns the child pid to the
1652 parent process, C<0> to the child process, or C<undef> if the fork is
1653 unsuccessful. File descriptors (and sometimes locks on those descriptors)
1654 are shared, while everything else is copied. On most systems supporting
1655 fork(), great care has gone into making it extremely efficient (for
1656 example, using copy-on-write technology on data pages), making it the
1657 dominant paradigm for multitasking over the last few decades.
1659 Beginning with v5.6.0, Perl will attempt to flush all files opened for
1660 output before forking the child process, but this may not be supported
1661 on some platforms (see L<perlport>). To be safe, you may need to set
1662 C<$|> ($AUTOFLUSH in English) or call the C<autoflush()> method of
1663 C<IO::Handle> on any open handles in order to avoid duplicate output.
1665 If you C<fork> without ever waiting on your children, you will
1666 accumulate zombies. On some systems, you can avoid this by setting
1667 C<$SIG{CHLD}> to C<"IGNORE">. See also L<perlipc> for more examples of
1668 forking and reaping moribund children.
1670 Note that if your forked child inherits system file descriptors like
1671 STDIN and STDOUT that are actually connected by a pipe or socket, even
1672 if you exit, then the remote server (such as, say, a CGI script or a
1673 backgrounded job launched from a remote shell) won't think you're done.
1674 You should reopen those to F</dev/null> if it's any issue.
1678 Declare a picture format for use by the C<write> function. For
1682 Test: @<<<<<<<< @||||| @>>>>>
1683 $str, $%, '$' . int($num)
1687 $num = $cost/$quantity;
1691 See L<perlform> for many details and examples.
1693 =item formline PICTURE,LIST
1695 This is an internal function used by C<format>s, though you may call it,
1696 too. It formats (see L<perlform>) a list of values according to the
1697 contents of PICTURE, placing the output into the format output
1698 accumulator, C<$^A> (or C<$ACCUMULATOR> in English).
1699 Eventually, when a C<write> is done, the contents of
1700 C<$^A> are written to some filehandle, but you could also read C<$^A>
1701 yourself and then set C<$^A> back to C<"">. Note that a format typically
1702 does one C<formline> per line of form, but the C<formline> function itself
1703 doesn't care how many newlines are embedded in the PICTURE. This means
1704 that the C<~> and C<~~> tokens will treat the entire PICTURE as a single line.
1705 You may therefore need to use multiple formlines to implement a single
1706 record format, just like the format compiler.
1708 Be careful if you put double quotes around the picture, because an C<@>
1709 character may be taken to mean the beginning of an array name.
1710 C<formline> always returns true. See L<perlform> for other examples.
1712 =item getc FILEHANDLE
1716 Returns the next character from the input file attached to FILEHANDLE,
1717 or the undefined value at end of file, or if there was an error.
1718 If FILEHANDLE is omitted, reads from STDIN. This is not particularly
1719 efficient. However, it cannot be used by itself to fetch single
1720 characters without waiting for the user to hit enter. For that, try
1721 something more like:
1724 system "stty cbreak </dev/tty >/dev/tty 2>&1";
1727 system "stty", '-icanon', 'eol', "\001";
1733 system "stty -cbreak </dev/tty >/dev/tty 2>&1";
1736 system "stty", 'icanon', 'eol', '^@'; # ASCII null
1740 Determination of whether $BSD_STYLE should be set
1741 is left as an exercise to the reader.
1743 The C<POSIX::getattr> function can do this more portably on
1744 systems purporting POSIX compliance. See also the C<Term::ReadKey>
1745 module from your nearest CPAN site; details on CPAN can be found on
1750 Implements the C library function of the same name, which on most
1751 systems returns the current login from F</etc/utmp>, if any. If null,
1754 $login = getlogin || getpwuid($<) || "Kilroy";
1756 Do not consider C<getlogin> for authentication: it is not as
1757 secure as C<getpwuid>.
1759 =item getpeername SOCKET
1761 Returns the packed sockaddr address of other end of the SOCKET connection.
1764 $hersockaddr = getpeername(SOCK);
1765 ($port, $iaddr) = sockaddr_in($hersockaddr);
1766 $herhostname = gethostbyaddr($iaddr, AF_INET);
1767 $herstraddr = inet_ntoa($iaddr);
1771 Returns the current process group for the specified PID. Use
1772 a PID of C<0> to get the current process group for the
1773 current process. Will raise an exception if used on a machine that
1774 doesn't implement getpgrp(2). If PID is omitted, returns process
1775 group of current process. Note that the POSIX version of C<getpgrp>
1776 does not accept a PID argument, so only C<PID==0> is truly portable.
1780 Returns the process id of the parent process.
1782 =item getpriority WHICH,WHO
1784 Returns the current priority for a process, a process group, or a user.
1785 (See L<getpriority(2)>.) Will raise a fatal exception if used on a
1786 machine that doesn't implement getpriority(2).
1792 =item gethostbyname NAME
1794 =item getnetbyname NAME
1796 =item getprotobyname NAME
1802 =item getservbyname NAME,PROTO
1804 =item gethostbyaddr ADDR,ADDRTYPE
1806 =item getnetbyaddr ADDR,ADDRTYPE
1808 =item getprotobynumber NUMBER
1810 =item getservbyport PORT,PROTO
1828 =item sethostent STAYOPEN
1830 =item setnetent STAYOPEN
1832 =item setprotoent STAYOPEN
1834 =item setservent STAYOPEN
1848 These routines perform the same functions as their counterparts in the
1849 system library. In list context, the return values from the
1850 various get routines are as follows:
1852 ($name,$passwd,$uid,$gid,
1853 $quota,$comment,$gcos,$dir,$shell,$expire) = getpw*
1854 ($name,$passwd,$gid,$members) = getgr*
1855 ($name,$aliases,$addrtype,$length,@addrs) = gethost*
1856 ($name,$aliases,$addrtype,$net) = getnet*
1857 ($name,$aliases,$proto) = getproto*
1858 ($name,$aliases,$port,$proto) = getserv*
1860 (If the entry doesn't exist you get a null list.)
1862 In scalar context, you get the name, unless the function was a
1863 lookup by name, in which case you get the other thing, whatever it is.
1864 (If the entry doesn't exist you get the undefined value.) For example:
1866 $uid = getpwnam($name);
1867 $name = getpwuid($num);
1869 $gid = getgrnam($name);
1870 $name = getgrgid($num;
1874 In I<getpw*()> the fields $quota, $comment, and $expire are
1875 special cases in the sense that in many systems they are unsupported.
1876 If the $quota is unsupported, it is an empty scalar. If it is
1877 supported, it usually encodes the disk quota. If the $comment
1878 field is unsupported, it is an empty scalar. If it is supported it
1879 usually encodes some administrative comment about the user. In some
1880 systems the $quota field may be $change or $age, fields that have
1881 to do with password aging. In some systems the $comment field may
1882 be $class. The $expire field, if present, encodes the expiration
1883 period of the account or the password. For the availability and the
1884 exact meaning of these fields in your system, please consult your
1885 getpwnam(3) documentation and your F<pwd.h> file. You can also find
1886 out from within Perl what your $quota and $comment fields mean
1887 and whether you have the $expire field by using the C<Config> module
1888 and the values C<d_pwquota>, C<d_pwage>, C<d_pwchange>, C<d_pwcomment>,
1889 and C<d_pwexpire>. Shadow password files are only supported if your
1890 vendor has implemented them in the intuitive fashion that calling the
1891 regular C library routines gets the shadow versions if you're running
1892 under privilege. Those that incorrectly implement a separate library
1893 call are not supported.
1895 The $members value returned by I<getgr*()> is a space separated list of
1896 the login names of the members of the group.
1898 For the I<gethost*()> functions, if the C<h_errno> variable is supported in
1899 C, it will be returned to you via C<$?> if the function call fails. The
1900 C<@addrs> value returned by a successful call is a list of the raw
1901 addresses returned by the corresponding system library call. In the
1902 Internet domain, each address is four bytes long and you can unpack it
1903 by saying something like:
1905 ($a,$b,$c,$d) = unpack('C4',$addr[0]);
1907 The Socket library makes this slightly easier:
1910 $iaddr = inet_aton("127.1"); # or whatever address
1911 $name = gethostbyaddr($iaddr, AF_INET);
1913 # or going the other way
1914 $straddr = inet_ntoa($iaddr);
1916 If you get tired of remembering which element of the return list
1917 contains which return value, by-name interfaces are provided
1918 in standard modules: C<File::stat>, C<Net::hostent>, C<Net::netent>,
1919 C<Net::protoent>, C<Net::servent>, C<Time::gmtime>, C<Time::localtime>,
1920 and C<User::grent>. These override the normal built-ins, supplying
1921 versions that return objects with the appropriate names
1922 for each field. For example:
1926 $is_his = (stat($filename)->uid == pwent($whoever)->uid);
1928 Even though it looks like they're the same method calls (uid),
1929 they aren't, because a C<File::stat> object is different from
1930 a C<User::pwent> object.
1932 =item getsockname SOCKET
1934 Returns the packed sockaddr address of this end of the SOCKET connection,
1935 in case you don't know the address because you have several different
1936 IPs that the connection might have come in on.
1939 $mysockaddr = getsockname(SOCK);
1940 ($port, $myaddr) = sockaddr_in($mysockaddr);
1941 printf "Connect to %s [%s]\n",
1942 scalar gethostbyaddr($myaddr, AF_INET),
1945 =item getsockopt SOCKET,LEVEL,OPTNAME
1947 Returns the socket option requested, or undef if there is an error.
1953 Returns the value of EXPR with filename expansions such as the
1954 standard Unix shell F</bin/csh> would do. This is the internal function
1955 implementing the C<< <*.c> >> operator, but you can use it directly.
1956 If EXPR is omitted, C<$_> is used. The C<< <*.c> >> operator is
1957 discussed in more detail in L<perlop/"I/O Operators">.
1959 Beginning with v5.6.0, this operator is implemented using the standard
1960 C<File::Glob> extension. See L<File::Glob> for details.
1964 Converts a time as returned by the time function to a 8-element list
1965 with the time localized for the standard Greenwich time zone.
1966 Typically used as follows:
1969 ($sec,$min,$hour,$mday,$mon,$year,$wday,$yday) =
1972 All list elements are numeric, and come straight out of the C `struct
1973 tm'. $sec, $min, and $hour are the seconds, minutes, and hours of the
1974 specified time. $mday is the day of the month, and $mon is the month
1975 itself, in the range C<0..11> with 0 indicating January and 11
1976 indicating December. $year is the number of years since 1900. That
1977 is, $year is C<123> in year 2023. $wday is the day of the week, with
1978 0 indicating Sunday and 3 indicating Wednesday. $yday is the day of
1979 the year, in the range C<1..365> (or C<1..366> in leap years.)
1981 Note that the $year element is I<not> simply the last two digits of
1982 the year. If you assume it is, then you create non-Y2K-compliant
1983 programs--and you wouldn't want to do that, would you?
1985 The proper way to get a complete 4-digit year is simply:
1989 And to get the last two digits of the year (e.g., '01' in 2001) do:
1991 $year = sprintf("%02d", $year % 100);
1993 If EXPR is omitted, C<gmtime()> uses the current time (C<gmtime(time)>).
1995 In scalar context, C<gmtime()> returns the ctime(3) value:
1997 $now_string = gmtime; # e.g., "Thu Oct 13 04:54:34 1994"
1999 Also see the C<timegm> function provided by the C<Time::Local> module,
2000 and the strftime(3) function available via the POSIX module.
2002 This scalar value is B<not> locale dependent (see L<perllocale>), but
2003 is instead a Perl builtin. Also see the C<Time::Local> module, and the
2004 strftime(3) and mktime(3) functions available via the POSIX module. To
2005 get somewhat similar but locale dependent date strings, set up your
2006 locale environment variables appropriately (please see L<perllocale>)
2007 and try for example:
2009 use POSIX qw(strftime);
2010 $now_string = strftime "%a %b %e %H:%M:%S %Y", gmtime;
2012 Note that the C<%a> and C<%b> escapes, which represent the short forms
2013 of the day of the week and the month of the year, may not necessarily
2014 be three characters wide in all locales.
2022 The C<goto-LABEL> form finds the statement labeled with LABEL and resumes
2023 execution there. It may not be used to go into any construct that
2024 requires initialization, such as a subroutine or a C<foreach> loop. It
2025 also can't be used to go into a construct that is optimized away,
2026 or to get out of a block or subroutine given to C<sort>.
2027 It can be used to go almost anywhere else within the dynamic scope,
2028 including out of subroutines, but it's usually better to use some other
2029 construct such as C<last> or C<die>. The author of Perl has never felt the
2030 need to use this form of C<goto> (in Perl, that is--C is another matter).
2032 The C<goto-EXPR> form expects a label name, whose scope will be resolved
2033 dynamically. This allows for computed C<goto>s per FORTRAN, but isn't
2034 necessarily recommended if you're optimizing for maintainability:
2036 goto ("FOO", "BAR", "GLARCH")[$i];
2038 The C<goto-&NAME> form is quite different from the other forms of C<goto>.
2039 In fact, it isn't a goto in the normal sense at all, and doesn't have
2040 the stigma associated with other gotos. Instead, it
2041 substitutes a call to the named subroutine for the currently running
2042 subroutine. This is used by C<AUTOLOAD> subroutines that wish to load
2043 another subroutine and then pretend that the other subroutine had been
2044 called in the first place (except that any modifications to C<@_>
2045 in the current subroutine are propagated to the other subroutine.)
2046 After the C<goto>, not even C<caller> will be able to tell that this
2047 routine was called first.
2049 NAME needn't be the name of a subroutine; it can be a scalar variable
2050 containing a code reference, or a block which evaluates to a code
2053 =item grep BLOCK LIST
2055 =item grep EXPR,LIST
2057 This is similar in spirit to, but not the same as, grep(1) and its
2058 relatives. In particular, it is not limited to using regular expressions.
2060 Evaluates the BLOCK or EXPR for each element of LIST (locally setting
2061 C<$_> to each element) and returns the list value consisting of those
2062 elements for which the expression evaluated to true. In scalar
2063 context, returns the number of times the expression was true.
2065 @foo = grep(!/^#/, @bar); # weed out comments
2069 @foo = grep {!/^#/} @bar; # weed out comments
2071 Note that, because C<$_> is a reference into the list value, it can
2072 be used to modify the elements of the array. While this is useful and
2073 supported, it can cause bizarre results if the LIST is not a named array.
2074 Similarly, grep returns aliases into the original list, much as a for
2075 loop's index variable aliases the list elements. That is, modifying an
2076 element of a list returned by grep (for example, in a C<foreach>, C<map>
2077 or another C<grep>) actually modifies the element in the original list.
2078 This is usually something to be avoided when writing clear code.
2080 See also L</map> for a list composed of the results of the BLOCK or EXPR.
2086 Interprets EXPR as a hex string and returns the corresponding value.
2087 (To convert strings that might start with either 0, 0x, or 0b, see
2088 L</oct>.) If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
2090 print hex '0xAf'; # prints '175'
2091 print hex 'aF'; # same
2093 Hex strings may only represent integers. Strings that would cause
2094 integer overflow trigger a warning.
2098 There is no builtin C<import> function. It is just an ordinary
2099 method (subroutine) defined (or inherited) by modules that wish to export
2100 names to another module. The C<use> function calls the C<import> method
2101 for the package used. See also L</use()>, L<perlmod>, and L<Exporter>.
2103 =item index STR,SUBSTR,POSITION
2105 =item index STR,SUBSTR
2107 The index function searches for one string within another, but without
2108 the wildcard-like behavior of a full regular-expression pattern match.
2109 It returns the position of the first occurrence of SUBSTR in STR at
2110 or after POSITION. If POSITION is omitted, starts searching from the
2111 beginning of the string. The return value is based at C<0> (or whatever
2112 you've set the C<$[> variable to--but don't do that). If the substring
2113 is not found, returns one less than the base, ordinarily C<-1>.
2119 Returns the integer portion of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
2120 You should not use this function for rounding: one because it truncates
2121 towards C<0>, and two because machine representations of floating point
2122 numbers can sometimes produce counterintuitive results. For example,
2123 C<int(-6.725/0.025)> produces -268 rather than the correct -269; that's
2124 because it's really more like -268.99999999999994315658 instead. Usually,
2125 the C<sprintf>, C<printf>, or the C<POSIX::floor> and C<POSIX::ceil>
2126 functions will serve you better than will int().
2128 =item ioctl FILEHANDLE,FUNCTION,SCALAR
2130 Implements the ioctl(2) function. You'll probably first have to say
2132 require "ioctl.ph"; # probably in /usr/local/lib/perl/ioctl.ph
2134 to get the correct function definitions. If F<ioctl.ph> doesn't
2135 exist or doesn't have the correct definitions you'll have to roll your
2136 own, based on your C header files such as F<< <sys/ioctl.h> >>.
2137 (There is a Perl script called B<h2ph> that comes with the Perl kit that
2138 may help you in this, but it's nontrivial.) SCALAR will be read and/or
2139 written depending on the FUNCTION--a pointer to the string value of SCALAR
2140 will be passed as the third argument of the actual C<ioctl> call. (If SCALAR
2141 has no string value but does have a numeric value, that value will be
2142 passed rather than a pointer to the string value. To guarantee this to be
2143 true, add a C<0> to the scalar before using it.) The C<pack> and C<unpack>
2144 functions may be needed to manipulate the values of structures used by
2147 The return value of C<ioctl> (and C<fcntl>) is as follows:
2149 if OS returns: then Perl returns:
2151 0 string "0 but true"
2152 anything else that number
2154 Thus Perl returns true on success and false on failure, yet you can
2155 still easily determine the actual value returned by the operating
2158 $retval = ioctl(...) || -1;
2159 printf "System returned %d\n", $retval;
2161 The special string "C<0> but true" is exempt from B<-w> complaints
2162 about improper numeric conversions.
2164 Here's an example of setting a filehandle named C<REMOTE> to be
2165 non-blocking at the system level. You'll have to negotiate C<$|>
2166 on your own, though.
2168 use Fcntl qw(F_GETFL F_SETFL O_NONBLOCK);
2170 $flags = fcntl(REMOTE, F_GETFL, 0)
2171 or die "Can't get flags for the socket: $!\n";
2173 $flags = fcntl(REMOTE, F_SETFL, $flags | O_NONBLOCK)
2174 or die "Can't set flags for the socket: $!\n";
2176 =item join EXPR,LIST
2178 Joins the separate strings of LIST into a single string with fields
2179 separated by the value of EXPR, and returns that new string. Example:
2181 $rec = join(':', $login,$passwd,$uid,$gid,$gcos,$home,$shell);
2183 Beware that unlike C<split>, C<join> doesn't take a pattern as its
2184 first argument. Compare L</split>.
2188 Returns a list consisting of all the keys of the named hash. (In
2189 scalar context, returns the number of keys.) The keys are returned in
2190 an apparently random order. The actual random order is subject to
2191 change in future versions of perl, but it is guaranteed to be the same
2192 order as either the C<values> or C<each> function produces (given
2193 that the hash has not been modified). As a side effect, it resets
2196 Here is yet another way to print your environment:
2199 @values = values %ENV;
2201 print pop(@keys), '=', pop(@values), "\n";
2204 or how about sorted by key:
2206 foreach $key (sort(keys %ENV)) {
2207 print $key, '=', $ENV{$key}, "\n";
2210 To sort a hash by value, you'll need to use a C<sort> function.
2211 Here's a descending numeric sort of a hash by its values:
2213 foreach $key (sort { $hash{$b} <=> $hash{$a} } keys %hash) {
2214 printf "%4d %s\n", $hash{$key}, $key;
2217 As an lvalue C<keys> allows you to increase the number of hash buckets
2218 allocated for the given hash. This can gain you a measure of efficiency if
2219 you know the hash is going to get big. (This is similar to pre-extending
2220 an array by assigning a larger number to $#array.) If you say
2224 then C<%hash> will have at least 200 buckets allocated for it--256 of them,
2225 in fact, since it rounds up to the next power of two. These
2226 buckets will be retained even if you do C<%hash = ()>, use C<undef
2227 %hash> if you want to free the storage while C<%hash> is still in scope.
2228 You can't shrink the number of buckets allocated for the hash using
2229 C<keys> in this way (but you needn't worry about doing this by accident,
2230 as trying has no effect).
2232 See also C<each>, C<values> and C<sort>.
2234 =item kill SIGNAL, LIST
2236 Sends a signal to a list of processes. Returns the number of
2237 processes successfully signaled (which is not necessarily the
2238 same as the number actually killed).
2240 $cnt = kill 1, $child1, $child2;
2243 If SIGNAL is zero, no signal is sent to the process. This is a
2244 useful way to check that the process is alive and hasn't changed
2245 its UID. See L<perlport> for notes on the portability of this
2248 Unlike in the shell, if SIGNAL is negative, it kills
2249 process groups instead of processes. (On System V, a negative I<PROCESS>
2250 number will also kill process groups, but that's not portable.) That
2251 means you usually want to use positive not negative signals. You may also
2252 use a signal name in quotes. See L<perlipc/"Signals"> for details.
2258 The C<last> command is like the C<break> statement in C (as used in
2259 loops); it immediately exits the loop in question. If the LABEL is
2260 omitted, the command refers to the innermost enclosing loop. The
2261 C<continue> block, if any, is not executed:
2263 LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
2264 last LINE if /^$/; # exit when done with header
2268 C<last> cannot be used to exit a block which returns a value such as
2269 C<eval {}>, C<sub {}> or C<do {}>, and should not be used to exit
2270 a grep() or map() operation.
2272 Note that a block by itself is semantically identical to a loop
2273 that executes once. Thus C<last> can be used to effect an early
2274 exit out of such a block.
2276 See also L</continue> for an illustration of how C<last>, C<next>, and
2283 Returns an lowercased version of EXPR. This is the internal function
2284 implementing the C<\L> escape in double-quoted strings.
2285 Respects current LC_CTYPE locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale>
2288 If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
2294 Returns the value of EXPR with the first character lowercased. This is
2295 the internal function implementing the C<\l> escape in double-quoted strings.
2296 Respects current LC_CTYPE locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale>.
2298 If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
2304 Returns the length in characters of the value of EXPR. If EXPR is
2305 omitted, returns length of C<$_>. Note that this cannot be used on
2306 an entire array or hash to find out how many elements these have.
2307 For that, use C<scalar @array> and C<scalar keys %hash> respectively.
2309 =item link OLDFILE,NEWFILE
2311 Creates a new filename linked to the old filename. Returns true for
2312 success, false otherwise.
2314 =item listen SOCKET,QUEUESIZE
2316 Does the same thing that the listen system call does. Returns true if
2317 it succeeded, false otherwise. See the example in L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">.
2321 You really probably want to be using C<my> instead, because C<local> isn't
2322 what most people think of as "local". See L<perlsub/"Private Variables
2323 via my()"> for details.
2325 A local modifies the listed variables to be local to the enclosing
2326 block, file, or eval. If more than one value is listed, the list must
2327 be placed in parentheses. See L<perlsub/"Temporary Values via local()">
2328 for details, including issues with tied arrays and hashes.
2330 =item localtime EXPR
2332 Converts a time as returned by the time function to a 9-element list
2333 with the time analyzed for the local time zone. Typically used as
2337 ($sec,$min,$hour,$mday,$mon,$year,$wday,$yday,$isdst) =
2340 All list elements are numeric, and come straight out of the C `struct
2341 tm'. $sec, $min, and $hour are the seconds, minutes, and hours of the
2342 specified time. $mday is the day of the month, and $mon is the month
2343 itself, in the range C<0..11> with 0 indicating January and 11
2344 indicating December. $year is the number of years since 1900. That
2345 is, $year is C<123> in year 2023. $wday is the day of the week, with
2346 0 indicating Sunday and 3 indicating Wednesday. $yday is the day of
2347 the year, in the range C<1..365> (or C<1..366> in leap years.) $isdst
2348 is true if the specified time occurs during daylight savings time,
2351 Note that the $year element is I<not> simply the last two digits of
2352 the year. If you assume it is, then you create non-Y2K-compliant
2353 programs--and you wouldn't want to do that, would you?
2355 The proper way to get a complete 4-digit year is simply:
2359 And to get the last two digits of the year (e.g., '01' in 2001) do:
2361 $year = sprintf("%02d", $year % 100);
2363 If EXPR is omitted, C<localtime()> uses the current time (C<localtime(time)>).
2365 In scalar context, C<localtime()> returns the ctime(3) value:
2367 $now_string = localtime; # e.g., "Thu Oct 13 04:54:34 1994"
2369 This scalar value is B<not> locale dependent, see L<perllocale>, but
2370 instead a Perl builtin. Also see the C<Time::Local> module
2371 (to convert the second, minutes, hours, ... back to seconds since the
2372 stroke of midnight the 1st of January 1970, the value returned by
2373 time()), and the strftime(3) and mktime(3) functions available via the
2374 POSIX module. To get somewhat similar but locale dependent date
2375 strings, set up your locale environment variables appropriately
2376 (please see L<perllocale>) and try for example:
2378 use POSIX qw(strftime);
2379 $now_string = strftime "%a %b %e %H:%M:%S %Y", localtime;
2381 Note that the C<%a> and C<%b>, the short forms of the day of the week
2382 and the month of the year, may not necessarily be three characters wide.
2388 This function places an advisory lock on a variable, subroutine,
2389 or referenced object contained in I<THING> until the lock goes out
2390 of scope. This is a built-in function only if your version of Perl
2391 was built with threading enabled, and if you've said C<use Threads>.
2392 Otherwise a user-defined function by this name will be called. See
2399 Returns the natural logarithm (base I<e>) of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted,
2400 returns log of C<$_>. To get the log of another base, use basic algebra:
2401 The base-N log of a number is equal to the natural log of that number
2402 divided by the natural log of N. For example:
2406 return log($n)/log(10);
2409 See also L</exp> for the inverse operation.
2411 =item lstat FILEHANDLE
2417 Does the same thing as the C<stat> function (including setting the
2418 special C<_> filehandle) but stats a symbolic link instead of the file
2419 the symbolic link points to. If symbolic links are unimplemented on
2420 your system, a normal C<stat> is done.
2422 If EXPR is omitted, stats C<$_>.
2426 The match operator. See L<perlop>.
2428 =item map BLOCK LIST
2432 Evaluates the BLOCK or EXPR for each element of LIST (locally setting
2433 C<$_> to each element) and returns the list value composed of the
2434 results of each such evaluation. In scalar context, returns the
2435 total number of elements so generated. Evaluates BLOCK or EXPR in
2436 list context, so each element of LIST may produce zero, one, or
2437 more elements in the returned value.
2439 @chars = map(chr, @nums);
2441 translates a list of numbers to the corresponding characters. And
2443 %hash = map { getkey($_) => $_ } @array;
2445 is just a funny way to write
2448 foreach $_ (@array) {
2449 $hash{getkey($_)} = $_;
2452 Note that, because C<$_> is a reference into the list value, it can
2453 be used to modify the elements of the array. While this is useful and
2454 supported, it can cause bizarre results if the LIST is not a named array.
2455 Using a regular C<foreach> loop for this purpose would be clearer in
2456 most cases. See also L</grep> for an array composed of those items of
2457 the original list for which the BLOCK or EXPR evaluates to true.
2459 =item mkdir FILENAME,MASK
2461 =item mkdir FILENAME
2463 Creates the directory specified by FILENAME, with permissions
2464 specified by MASK (as modified by C<umask>). If it succeeds it
2465 returns true, otherwise it returns false and sets C<$!> (errno).
2466 If omitted, MASK defaults to 0777.
2468 In general, it is better to create directories with permissive MASK,
2469 and let the user modify that with their C<umask>, than it is to supply
2470 a restrictive MASK and give the user no way to be more permissive.
2471 The exceptions to this rule are when the file or directory should be
2472 kept private (mail files, for instance). The perlfunc(1) entry on
2473 C<umask> discusses the choice of MASK in more detail.
2475 =item msgctl ID,CMD,ARG
2477 Calls the System V IPC function msgctl(2). You'll probably have to say
2481 first to get the correct constant definitions. If CMD is C<IPC_STAT>,
2482 then ARG must be a variable which will hold the returned C<msqid_ds>
2483 structure. Returns like C<ioctl>: the undefined value for error,
2484 C<"0 but true"> for zero, or the actual return value otherwise. See also
2485 C<IPC::SysV> and C<IPC::Semaphore> documentation.
2487 =item msgget KEY,FLAGS
2489 Calls the System V IPC function msgget(2). Returns the message queue
2490 id, or the undefined value if there is an error. See also C<IPC::SysV>
2491 and C<IPC::Msg> documentation.
2493 =item msgsnd ID,MSG,FLAGS
2495 Calls the System V IPC function msgsnd to send the message MSG to the
2496 message queue ID. MSG must begin with the native long integer message
2497 type, which may be created with C<pack("l!", $type)>. Returns true if
2498 successful, or false if there is an error. See also C<IPC::SysV> and
2499 C<IPC::SysV::Msg> documentation.
2501 =item msgrcv ID,VAR,SIZE,TYPE,FLAGS
2503 Calls the System V IPC function msgrcv to receive a message from
2504 message queue ID into variable VAR with a maximum message size of
2505 SIZE. Note that if a message is received, the message type will be
2506 the first thing in VAR, and the maximum length of VAR is SIZE plus the
2507 size of the message type. Returns true if successful, or false if
2508 there is an error. See also C<IPC::SysV> and C<IPC::SysV::Msg> documentation.
2512 =item my EXPR : ATTRIBUTES
2514 A C<my> declares the listed variables to be local (lexically) to the
2515 enclosing block, file, or C<eval>. If
2516 more than one value is listed, the list must be placed in parentheses. See
2517 L<perlsub/"Private Variables via my()"> for details.
2523 The C<next> command is like the C<continue> statement in C; it starts
2524 the next iteration of the loop:
2526 LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
2527 next LINE if /^#/; # discard comments
2531 Note that if there were a C<continue> block on the above, it would get
2532 executed even on discarded lines. If the LABEL is omitted, the command
2533 refers to the innermost enclosing loop.
2535 C<next> cannot be used to exit a block which returns a value such as
2536 C<eval {}>, C<sub {}> or C<do {}>, and should not be used to exit
2537 a grep() or map() operation.
2539 Note that a block by itself is semantically identical to a loop
2540 that executes once. Thus C<next> will exit such a block early.
2542 See also L</continue> for an illustration of how C<last>, C<next>, and
2545 =item no Module LIST
2547 See the L</use> function, which C<no> is the opposite of.
2553 Interprets EXPR as an octal string and returns the corresponding
2554 value. (If EXPR happens to start off with C<0x>, interprets it as a
2555 hex string. If EXPR starts off with C<0b>, it is interpreted as a
2556 binary string.) The following will handle decimal, binary, octal, and
2557 hex in the standard Perl or C notation:
2559 $val = oct($val) if $val =~ /^0/;
2561 If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>. To go the other way (produce a number
2562 in octal), use sprintf() or printf():
2564 $perms = (stat("filename"))[2] & 07777;
2565 $oct_perms = sprintf "%lo", $perms;
2567 The oct() function is commonly used when a string such as C<644> needs
2568 to be converted into a file mode, for example. (Although perl will
2569 automatically convert strings into numbers as needed, this automatic
2570 conversion assumes base 10.)
2572 =item open FILEHANDLE,MODE,LIST
2574 =item open FILEHANDLE,EXPR
2576 =item open FILEHANDLE
2578 Opens the file whose filename is given by EXPR, and associates it with
2579 FILEHANDLE. If FILEHANDLE is an expression, its value is used as the
2580 name of the real filehandle wanted. If EXPR is omitted, the scalar
2581 variable of the same name as the FILEHANDLE contains the filename.
2582 (Note that lexical variables--those declared with C<my>--will not work
2583 for this purpose; so if you're using C<my>, specify EXPR in your call
2584 to open.) See L<perlopentut> for a kinder, gentler explanation of opening
2587 If MODE is C<< '<' >> or nothing, the file is opened for input.
2588 If MODE is C<< '>' >>, the file is truncated and opened for
2589 output, being created if necessary. If MODE is C<<< '>>' >>>,
2590 the file is opened for appending, again being created if necessary.
2591 You can put a C<'+'> in front of the C<< '>' >> or C<< '<' >> to indicate that
2592 you want both read and write access to the file; thus C<< '+<' >> is almost
2593 always preferred for read/write updates--the C<< '+>' >> mode would clobber the
2594 file first. You can't usually use either read-write mode for updating
2595 textfiles, since they have variable length records. See the B<-i>
2596 switch in L<perlrun> for a better approach. The file is created with
2597 permissions of C<0666> modified by the process' C<umask> value.
2599 These various prefixes correspond to the fopen(3) modes of C<'r'>, C<'r+'>,
2600 C<'w'>, C<'w+'>, C<'a'>, and C<'a+'>.
2602 In the 2-arguments (and 1-argument) form of the call the mode and
2603 filename should be concatenated (in this order), possibly separated by
2604 spaces. It is possible to omit the mode if the mode is C<< '<' >>.
2606 If the filename begins with C<'|'>, the filename is interpreted as a
2607 command to which output is to be piped, and if the filename ends with a
2608 C<'|'>, the filename is interpreted as a command which pipes output to
2609 us. See L<perlipc/"Using open() for IPC">
2610 for more examples of this. (You are not allowed to C<open> to a command
2611 that pipes both in I<and> out, but see L<IPC::Open2>, L<IPC::Open3>,
2612 and L<perlipc/"Bidirectional Communication with Another Process">
2615 If MODE is C<'|-'>, the filename is interpreted as a
2616 command to which output is to be piped, and if MODE is
2617 C<'-|'>, the filename is interpreted as a command which pipes output to
2618 us. In the 2-arguments (and 1-argument) form one should replace dash
2619 (C<'-'>) with the command. See L<perlipc/"Using open() for IPC">
2620 for more examples of this. (You are not allowed to C<open> to a command
2621 that pipes both in I<and> out, but see L<IPC::Open2>, L<IPC::Open3>,
2622 and L<perlipc/"Bidirectional Communication"> for alternatives.)
2624 In the 2-arguments (and 1-argument) form opening C<'-'> opens STDIN
2625 and opening C<< '>-' >> opens STDOUT.
2628 nonzero upon success, the undefined value otherwise. If the C<open>
2629 involved a pipe, the return value happens to be the pid of the
2632 If you're unfortunate enough to be running Perl on a system that
2633 distinguishes between text files and binary files (modern operating
2634 systems don't care), then you should check out L</binmode> for tips for
2635 dealing with this. The key distinction between systems that need C<binmode>
2636 and those that don't is their text file formats. Systems like Unix, MacOS, and
2637 Plan9, which delimit lines with a single character, and which encode that
2638 character in C as C<"\n">, do not need C<binmode>. The rest need it.
2640 When opening a file, it's usually a bad idea to continue normal execution
2641 if the request failed, so C<open> is frequently used in connection with
2642 C<die>. Even if C<die> won't do what you want (say, in a CGI script,
2643 where you want to make a nicely formatted error message (but there are
2644 modules that can help with that problem)) you should always check
2645 the return value from opening a file. The infrequent exception is when
2646 working with an unopened filehandle is actually what you want to do.
2651 open ARTICLE or die "Can't find article $ARTICLE: $!\n";
2652 while (<ARTICLE>) {...
2654 open(LOG, '>>/usr/spool/news/twitlog'); # (log is reserved)
2655 # if the open fails, output is discarded
2657 open(DBASE, '+<', 'dbase.mine') # open for update
2658 or die "Can't open 'dbase.mine' for update: $!";
2660 open(DBASE, '+<dbase.mine') # ditto
2661 or die "Can't open 'dbase.mine' for update: $!";
2663 open(ARTICLE, '-|', "caesar <$article") # decrypt article
2664 or die "Can't start caesar: $!";
2666 open(ARTICLE, "caesar <$article |") # ditto
2667 or die "Can't start caesar: $!";
2669 open(EXTRACT, "|sort >/tmp/Tmp$$") # $$ is our process id
2670 or die "Can't start sort: $!";
2672 # process argument list of files along with any includes
2674 foreach $file (@ARGV) {
2675 process($file, 'fh00');
2679 my($filename, $input) = @_;
2680 $input++; # this is a string increment
2681 unless (open($input, $filename)) {
2682 print STDERR "Can't open $filename: $!\n";
2687 while (<$input>) { # note use of indirection
2688 if (/^#include "(.*)"/) {
2689 process($1, $input);
2696 You may also, in the Bourne shell tradition, specify an EXPR beginning
2697 with C<< '>&' >>, in which case the rest of the string is interpreted as the
2698 name of a filehandle (or file descriptor, if numeric) to be
2699 duped and opened. You may use C<&> after C<< > >>, C<<< >> >>>,
2700 C<< < >>, C<< +> >>, C<<< +>> >>>, and C<< +< >>. The
2701 mode you specify should match the mode of the original filehandle.
2702 (Duping a filehandle does not take into account any existing contents of
2703 stdio buffers.) Duping file handles is not yet supported for 3-argument
2706 Here is a script that saves, redirects, and restores STDOUT and
2710 open(OLDOUT, ">&STDOUT");
2711 open(OLDERR, ">&STDERR");
2713 open(STDOUT, '>', "foo.out") || die "Can't redirect stdout";
2714 open(STDERR, ">&STDOUT") || die "Can't dup stdout";
2716 select(STDERR); $| = 1; # make unbuffered
2717 select(STDOUT); $| = 1; # make unbuffered
2719 print STDOUT "stdout 1\n"; # this works for
2720 print STDERR "stderr 1\n"; # subprocesses too
2725 open(STDOUT, ">&OLDOUT");
2726 open(STDERR, ">&OLDERR");
2728 print STDOUT "stdout 2\n";
2729 print STDERR "stderr 2\n";
2731 If you specify C<< '<&=N' >>, where C<N> is a number, then Perl will do an
2732 equivalent of C's C<fdopen> of that file descriptor; this is more
2733 parsimonious of file descriptors. For example:
2735 open(FILEHANDLE, "<&=$fd")
2737 Note that this feature depends on the fdopen() C library function.
2738 On many UNIX systems, fdopen() is known to fail when file descriptors
2739 exceed a certain value, typically 255. If you need more file
2740 descriptors than that, consider rebuilding Perl to use the C<sfio>
2743 If you open a pipe on the command C<'-'>, i.e., either C<'|-'> or C<'-|'>
2744 with 2-arguments (or 1-argument) form of open(), then
2745 there is an implicit fork done, and the return value of open is the pid
2746 of the child within the parent process, and C<0> within the child
2747 process. (Use C<defined($pid)> to determine whether the open was successful.)
2748 The filehandle behaves normally for the parent, but i/o to that
2749 filehandle is piped from/to the STDOUT/STDIN of the child process.
2750 In the child process the filehandle isn't opened--i/o happens from/to
2751 the new STDOUT or STDIN. Typically this is used like the normal
2752 piped open when you want to exercise more control over just how the
2753 pipe command gets executed, such as when you are running setuid, and
2754 don't want to have to scan shell commands for metacharacters.
2755 The following triples are more or less equivalent:
2757 open(FOO, "|tr '[a-z]' '[A-Z]'");
2758 open(FOO, '|-', "tr '[a-z]' '[A-Z]'");
2759 open(FOO, '|-') || exec 'tr', '[a-z]', '[A-Z]';
2761 open(FOO, "cat -n '$file'|");
2762 open(FOO, '-|', "cat -n '$file'");
2763 open(FOO, '-|') || exec 'cat', '-n', $file;
2765 See L<perlipc/"Safe Pipe Opens"> for more examples of this.
2767 Beginning with v5.6.0, Perl will attempt to flush all files opened for
2768 output before any operation that may do a fork, but this may not be
2769 supported on some platforms (see L<perlport>). To be safe, you may need
2770 to set C<$|> ($AUTOFLUSH in English) or call the C<autoflush()> method
2771 of C<IO::Handle> on any open handles.
2773 On systems that support a
2774 close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will be set for the newly opened
2775 file descriptor as determined by the value of $^F. See L<perlvar/$^F>.
2777 Closing any piped filehandle causes the parent process to wait for the
2778 child to finish, and returns the status value in C<$?>.
2780 The filename passed to 2-argument (or 1-argument) form of open()
2781 will have leading and trailing
2782 whitespace deleted, and the normal redirection characters
2783 honored. This property, known as "magic open",
2784 can often be used to good effect. A user could specify a filename of
2785 F<"rsh cat file |">, or you could change certain filenames as needed:
2787 $filename =~ s/(.*\.gz)\s*$/gzip -dc < $1|/;
2788 open(FH, $filename) or die "Can't open $filename: $!";
2790 Use 3-argument form to open a file with arbitrary weird characters in it,
2792 open(FOO, '<', $file);
2794 otherwise it's necessary to protect any leading and trailing whitespace:
2796 $file =~ s#^(\s)#./$1#;
2797 open(FOO, "< $file\0");
2799 (this may not work on some bizzare filesystems). One should
2800 conscientiously choose between the the I<magic> and 3-arguments form
2805 will allow the user to specify an argument of the form C<"rsh cat file |">,
2806 but will not work on a filename which happens to have a trailing space, while
2808 open IN, '<', $ARGV[0];
2810 will have exactly the opposite restrictions.
2812 If you want a "real" C C<open> (see L<open(2)> on your system), then you
2813 should use the C<sysopen> function, which involves no such magic (but
2814 may use subtly different filemodes than Perl open(), which is mapped
2815 to C fopen()). This is
2816 another way to protect your filenames from interpretation. For example:
2819 sysopen(HANDLE, $path, O_RDWR|O_CREAT|O_EXCL)
2820 or die "sysopen $path: $!";
2821 $oldfh = select(HANDLE); $| = 1; select($oldfh);
2822 print HANDLE "stuff $$\n");
2824 print "File contains: ", <HANDLE>;
2826 Using the constructor from the C<IO::Handle> package (or one of its
2827 subclasses, such as C<IO::File> or C<IO::Socket>), you can generate anonymous
2828 filehandles that have the scope of whatever variables hold references to
2829 them, and automatically close whenever and however you leave that scope:
2833 sub read_myfile_munged {
2835 my $handle = new IO::File;
2836 open($handle, "myfile") or die "myfile: $!";
2838 or return (); # Automatically closed here.
2839 mung $first or die "mung failed"; # Or here.
2840 return $first, <$handle> if $ALL; # Or here.
2844 See L</seek> for some details about mixing reading and writing.
2846 =item opendir DIRHANDLE,EXPR
2848 Opens a directory named EXPR for processing by C<readdir>, C<telldir>,
2849 C<seekdir>, C<rewinddir>, and C<closedir>. Returns true if successful.
2850 DIRHANDLEs have their own namespace separate from FILEHANDLEs.
2856 Returns the numeric (ASCII or Unicode) value of the first character of EXPR. If
2857 EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>. For the reverse, see L</chr>.
2858 See L<utf8> for more about Unicode.
2862 An C<our> declares the listed variables to be valid globals within
2863 the enclosing block, file, or C<eval>. That is, it has the same
2864 scoping rules as a "my" declaration, but does not create a local
2865 variable. If more than one value is listed, the list must be placed
2866 in parentheses. The C<our> declaration has no semantic effect unless
2867 "use strict vars" is in effect, in which case it lets you use the
2868 declared global variable without qualifying it with a package name.
2869 (But only within the lexical scope of the C<our> declaration. In this
2870 it differs from "use vars", which is package scoped.)
2872 An C<our> declaration declares a global variable that will be visible
2873 across its entire lexical scope, even across package boundaries. The
2874 package in which the variable is entered is determined at the point
2875 of the declaration, not at the point of use. This means the following
2879 our $bar; # declares $Foo::bar for rest of lexical scope
2883 print $bar; # prints 20
2885 Multiple C<our> declarations in the same lexical scope are allowed
2886 if they are in different packages. If they happened to be in the same
2887 package, Perl will emit warnings if you have asked for them.
2891 our $bar; # declares $Foo::bar for rest of lexical scope
2895 our $bar = 30; # declares $Bar::bar for rest of lexical scope
2896 print $bar; # prints 30
2898 our $bar; # emits warning
2900 =item pack TEMPLATE,LIST
2902 Takes a LIST of values and converts it into a string using the rules
2903 given by the TEMPLATE. The resulting string is the concatenation of
2904 the converted values. Typically, each converted value looks
2905 like its machine-level representation. For example, on 32-bit machines
2906 a converted integer may be represented by a sequence of 4 bytes.
2909 sequence of characters that give the order and type of values, as
2912 a A string with arbitrary binary data, will be null padded.
2913 A An ascii string, will be space padded.
2914 Z A null terminated (asciz) string, will be null padded.
2916 b A bit string (ascending bit order inside each byte, like vec()).
2917 B A bit string (descending bit order inside each byte).
2918 h A hex string (low nybble first).
2919 H A hex string (high nybble first).
2921 c A signed char value.
2922 C An unsigned char value. Only does bytes. See U for Unicode.
2924 s A signed short value.
2925 S An unsigned short value.
2926 (This 'short' is _exactly_ 16 bits, which may differ from
2927 what a local C compiler calls 'short'. If you want
2928 native-length shorts, use the '!' suffix.)
2930 i A signed integer value.
2931 I An unsigned integer value.
2932 (This 'integer' is _at_least_ 32 bits wide. Its exact
2933 size depends on what a local C compiler calls 'int',
2934 and may even be larger than the 'long' described in
2937 l A signed long value.
2938 L An unsigned long value.
2939 (This 'long' is _exactly_ 32 bits, which may differ from
2940 what a local C compiler calls 'long'. If you want
2941 native-length longs, use the '!' suffix.)
2943 n An unsigned short in "network" (big-endian) order.
2944 N An unsigned long in "network" (big-endian) order.
2945 v An unsigned short in "VAX" (little-endian) order.
2946 V An unsigned long in "VAX" (little-endian) order.
2947 (These 'shorts' and 'longs' are _exactly_ 16 bits and
2948 _exactly_ 32 bits, respectively.)
2950 q A signed quad (64-bit) value.
2951 Q An unsigned quad value.
2952 (Quads are available only if your system supports 64-bit
2953 integer values _and_ if Perl has been compiled to support those.
2954 Causes a fatal error otherwise.)
2956 f A single-precision float in the native format.
2957 d A double-precision float in the native format.
2959 p A pointer to a null-terminated string.
2960 P A pointer to a structure (fixed-length string).
2962 u A uuencoded string.
2963 U A Unicode character number. Encodes to UTF-8 internally.
2964 Works even if C<use utf8> is not in effect.
2966 w A BER compressed integer. Its bytes represent an unsigned
2967 integer in base 128, most significant digit first, with as
2968 few digits as possible. Bit eight (the high bit) is set
2969 on each byte except the last.
2973 @ Null fill to absolute position.
2975 The following rules apply:
2981 Each letter may optionally be followed by a number giving a repeat
2982 count. With all types except C<a>, C<A>, C<Z>, C<b>, C<B>, C<h>,
2983 C<H>, and C<P> the pack function will gobble up that many values from
2984 the LIST. A C<*> for the repeat count means to use however many items are
2985 left, except for C<@>, C<x>, C<X>, where it is equivalent
2986 to C<0>, and C<u>, where it is equivalent to 1 (or 45, what is the
2989 When used with C<Z>, C<*> results in the addition of a trailing null
2990 byte (so the packed result will be one longer than the byte C<length>
2993 The repeat count for C<u> is interpreted as the maximal number of bytes
2994 to encode per line of output, with 0 and 1 replaced by 45.
2998 The C<a>, C<A>, and C<Z> types gobble just one value, but pack it as a
2999 string of length count, padding with nulls or spaces as necessary. When
3000 unpacking, C<A> strips trailing spaces and nulls, C<Z> strips everything
3001 after the first null, and C<a> returns data verbatim. When packing,
3002 C<a>, and C<Z> are equivalent.
3004 If the value-to-pack is too long, it is truncated. If too long and an
3005 explicit count is provided, C<Z> packs only C<$count-1> bytes, followed
3006 by a null byte. Thus C<Z> always packs a trailing null byte under
3011 Likewise, the C<b> and C<B> fields pack a string that many bits long.
3012 Each byte of the input field of pack() generates 1 bit of the result.
3013 Each result bit is based on the least-significant bit of the corresponding
3014 input byte, i.e., on C<ord($byte)%2>. In particular, bytes C<"0"> and
3015 C<"1"> generate bits 0 and 1, as do bytes C<"\0"> and C<"\1">.
3017 Starting from the beginning of the input string of pack(), each 8-tuple
3018 of bytes is converted to 1 byte of output. With format C<b>
3019 the first byte of the 8-tuple determines the least-significant bit of a
3020 byte, and with format C<B> it determines the most-significant bit of
3023 If the length of the input string is not exactly divisible by 8, the
3024 remainder is packed as if the input string were padded by null bytes
3025 at the end. Similarly, during unpack()ing the "extra" bits are ignored.
3027 If the input string of pack() is longer than needed, extra bytes are ignored.
3028 A C<*> for the repeat count of pack() means to use all the bytes of
3029 the input field. On unpack()ing the bits are converted to a string
3030 of C<"0">s and C<"1">s.
3034 The C<h> and C<H> fields pack a string that many nybbles (4-bit groups,
3035 representable as hexadecimal digits, 0-9a-f) long.
3037 Each byte of the input field of pack() generates 4 bits of the result.
3038 For non-alphabetical bytes the result is based on the 4 least-significant
3039 bits of the input byte, i.e., on C<ord($byte)%16>. In particular,
3040 bytes C<"0"> and C<"1"> generate nybbles 0 and 1, as do bytes
3041 C<"\0"> and C<"\1">. For bytes C<"a".."f"> and C<"A".."F"> the result
3042 is compatible with the usual hexadecimal digits, so that C<"a"> and
3043 C<"A"> both generate the nybble C<0xa==10>. The result for bytes
3044 C<"g".."z"> and C<"G".."Z"> is not well-defined.
3046 Starting from the beginning of the input string of pack(), each pair
3047 of bytes is converted to 1 byte of output. With format C<h> the
3048 first byte of the pair determines the least-significant nybble of the
3049 output byte, and with format C<H> it determines the most-significant
3052 If the length of the input string is not even, it behaves as if padded
3053 by a null byte at the end. Similarly, during unpack()ing the "extra"
3054 nybbles are ignored.
3056 If the input string of pack() is longer than needed, extra bytes are ignored.
3057 A C<*> for the repeat count of pack() means to use all the bytes of
3058 the input field. On unpack()ing the bits are converted to a string
3059 of hexadecimal digits.
3063 The C<p> type packs a pointer to a null-terminated string. You are
3064 responsible for ensuring the string is not a temporary value (which can
3065 potentially get deallocated before you get around to using the packed result).
3066 The C<P> type packs a pointer to a structure of the size indicated by the
3067 length. A NULL pointer is created if the corresponding value for C<p> or
3068 C<P> is C<undef>, similarly for unpack().
3072 The C</> template character allows packing and unpacking of strings where
3073 the packed structure contains a byte count followed by the string itself.
3074 You write I<length-item>C</>I<string-item>.
3076 The I<length-item> can be any C<pack> template letter,
3077 and describes how the length value is packed.
3078 The ones likely to be of most use are integer-packing ones like
3079 C<n> (for Java strings), C<w> (for ASN.1 or SNMP)
3080 and C<N> (for Sun XDR).
3082 The I<string-item> must, at present, be C<"A*">, C<"a*"> or C<"Z*">.
3083 For C<unpack> the length of the string is obtained from the I<length-item>,
3084 but if you put in the '*' it will be ignored.
3086 unpack 'C/a', "\04Gurusamy"; gives 'Guru'
3087 unpack 'a3/A* A*', '007 Bond J '; gives (' Bond','J')
3088 pack 'n/a* w/a*','hello,','world'; gives "\000\006hello,\005world"
3090 The I<length-item> is not returned explicitly from C<unpack>.
3092 Adding a count to the I<length-item> letter is unlikely to do anything
3093 useful, unless that letter is C<A>, C<a> or C<Z>. Packing with a
3094 I<length-item> of C<a> or C<Z> may introduce C<"\000"> characters,
3095 which Perl does not regard as legal in numeric strings.
3099 The integer types C<s>, C<S>, C<l>, and C<L> may be
3100 immediately followed by a C<!> suffix to signify native shorts or
3101 longs--as you can see from above for example a bare C<l> does mean
3102 exactly 32 bits, the native C<long> (as seen by the local C compiler)
3103 may be larger. This is an issue mainly in 64-bit platforms. You can
3104 see whether using C<!> makes any difference by
3106 print length(pack("s")), " ", length(pack("s!")), "\n";
3107 print length(pack("l")), " ", length(pack("l!")), "\n";
3109 C<i!> and C<I!> also work but only because of completeness;
3110 they are identical to C<i> and C<I>.
3112 The actual sizes (in bytes) of native shorts, ints, longs, and long
3113 longs on the platform where Perl was built are also available via
3117 print $Config{shortsize}, "\n";
3118 print $Config{intsize}, "\n";
3119 print $Config{longsize}, "\n";
3120 print $Config{longlongsize}, "\n";
3122 (The C<$Config{longlongsize}> will be undefine if your system does
3123 not support long longs.)
3127 The integer formats C<s>, C<S>, C<i>, C<I>, C<l>, and C<L>
3128 are inherently non-portable between processors and operating systems
3129 because they obey the native byteorder and endianness. For example a
3130 4-byte integer 0x12345678 (305419896 decimal) be ordered natively
3131 (arranged in and handled by the CPU registers) into bytes as
3133 0x12 0x34 0x56 0x78 # little-endian
3134 0x78 0x56 0x34 0x12 # big-endian
3136 Basically, the Intel, Alpha, and VAX CPUs are little-endian, while
3137 everybody else, for example Motorola m68k/88k, PPC, Sparc, HP PA,
3138 Power, and Cray are big-endian. MIPS can be either: Digital used it
3139 in little-endian mode; SGI uses it in big-endian mode.
3141 The names `big-endian' and `little-endian' are comic references to
3142 the classic "Gulliver's Travels" (via the paper "On Holy Wars and a
3143 Plea for Peace" by Danny Cohen, USC/ISI IEN 137, April 1, 1980) and
3144 the egg-eating habits of the Lilliputians.
3146 Some systems may have even weirder byte orders such as
3151 You can see your system's preference with
3153 print join(" ", map { sprintf "%#02x", $_ }
3154 unpack("C*",pack("L",0x12345678))), "\n";
3156 The byteorder on the platform where Perl was built is also available
3160 print $Config{byteorder}, "\n";
3162 Byteorders C<'1234'> and C<'12345678'> are little-endian, C<'4321'>
3163 and C<'87654321'> are big-endian.
3165 If you want portable packed integers use the formats C<n>, C<N>,
3166 C<v>, and C<V>, their byte endianness and size is known.
3167 See also L<perlport>.
3171 Real numbers (floats and doubles) are in the native machine format only;
3172 due to the multiplicity of floating formats around, and the lack of a
3173 standard "network" representation, no facility for interchange has been
3174 made. This means that packed floating point data written on one machine
3175 may not be readable on another - even if both use IEEE floating point
3176 arithmetic (as the endian-ness of the memory representation is not part
3177 of the IEEE spec). See also L<perlport>.
3179 Note that Perl uses doubles internally for all numeric calculation, and
3180 converting from double into float and thence back to double again will
3181 lose precision (i.e., C<unpack("f", pack("f", $foo)>) will not in general
3186 You must yourself do any alignment or padding by inserting for example
3187 enough C<'x'>es while packing. There is no way to pack() and unpack()
3188 could know where the bytes are going to or coming from. Therefore
3189 C<pack> (and C<unpack>) handle their output and input as flat
3194 A comment in a TEMPLATE starts with C<#> and goes to the end of line.
3198 If TEMPLATE requires more arguments to pack() than actually given, pack()
3199 assumes additional C<""> arguments. If TEMPLATE requires less arguments
3200 to pack() than actually given, extra arguments are ignored.
3206 $foo = pack("CCCC",65,66,67,68);
3208 $foo = pack("C4",65,66,67,68);
3210 $foo = pack("U4",0x24b6,0x24b7,0x24b8,0x24b9);
3211 # same thing with Unicode circled letters
3213 $foo = pack("ccxxcc",65,66,67,68);
3216 # note: the above examples featuring "C" and "c" are true
3217 # only on ASCII and ASCII-derived systems such as ISO Latin 1
3218 # and UTF-8. In EBCDIC the first example would be
3219 # $foo = pack("CCCC",193,194,195,196);
3221 $foo = pack("s2",1,2);
3222 # "\1\0\2\0" on little-endian
3223 # "\0\1\0\2" on big-endian
3225 $foo = pack("a4","abcd","x","y","z");
3228 $foo = pack("aaaa","abcd","x","y","z");
3231 $foo = pack("a14","abcdefg");
3232 # "abcdefg\0\0\0\0\0\0\0"
3234 $foo = pack("i9pl", gmtime);
3235 # a real struct tm (on my system anyway)
3237 $utmp_template = "Z8 Z8 Z16 L";
3238 $utmp = pack($utmp_template, @utmp1);
3239 # a struct utmp (BSDish)
3241 @utmp2 = unpack($utmp_template, $utmp);
3242 # "@utmp1" eq "@utmp2"
3245 unpack("N", pack("B32", substr("0" x 32 . shift, -32)));
3248 $foo = pack('sx2l', 12, 34);
3249 # short 12, two zero bytes padding, long 34
3250 $bar = pack('s@4l', 12, 34);
3251 # short 12, zero fill to position 4, long 34
3254 The same template may generally also be used in unpack().
3258 =item package NAMESPACE
3260 Declares the compilation unit as being in the given namespace. The scope
3261 of the package declaration is from the declaration itself through the end
3262 of the enclosing block, file, or eval (the same as the C<my> operator).
3263 All further unqualified dynamic identifiers will be in this namespace.
3264 A package statement affects only dynamic variables--including those
3265 you've used C<local> on--but I<not> lexical variables, which are created
3266 with C<my>. Typically it would be the first declaration in a file to
3267 be included by the C<require> or C<use> operator. You can switch into a
3268 package in more than one place; it merely influences which symbol table
3269 is used by the compiler for the rest of that block. You can refer to
3270 variables and filehandles in other packages by prefixing the identifier
3271 with the package name and a double colon: C<$Package::Variable>.
3272 If the package name is null, the C<main> package as assumed. That is,
3273 C<$::sail> is equivalent to C<$main::sail> (as well as to C<$main'sail>,
3274 still seen in older code).
3276 If NAMESPACE is omitted, then there is no current package, and all
3277 identifiers must be fully qualified or lexicals. This is stricter
3278 than C<use strict>, since it also extends to function names.
3280 See L<perlmod/"Packages"> for more information about packages, modules,
3281 and classes. See L<perlsub> for other scoping issues.
3283 =item pipe READHANDLE,WRITEHANDLE
3285 Opens a pair of connected pipes like the corresponding system call.
3286 Note that if you set up a loop of piped processes, deadlock can occur
3287 unless you are very careful. In addition, note that Perl's pipes use
3288 stdio buffering, so you may need to set C<$|> to flush your WRITEHANDLE
3289 after each command, depending on the application.
3291 See L<IPC::Open2>, L<IPC::Open3>, and L<perlipc/"Bidirectional Communication">
3292 for examples of such things.
3294 On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will be set
3295 for the newly opened file descriptors as determined by the value of $^F.
3302 Pops and returns the last value of the array, shortening the array by
3303 one element. Has an effect similar to
3307 If there are no elements in the array, returns the undefined value
3308 (although this may happen at other times as well). If ARRAY is
3309 omitted, pops the C<@ARGV> array in the main program, and the C<@_>
3310 array in subroutines, just like C<shift>.
3316 Returns the offset of where the last C<m//g> search left off for the variable
3317 is in question (C<$_> is used when the variable is not specified). May be
3318 modified to change that offset. Such modification will also influence
3319 the C<\G> zero-width assertion in regular expressions. See L<perlre> and
3322 =item print FILEHANDLE LIST
3328 Prints a string or a list of strings. Returns true if successful.
3329 FILEHANDLE may be a scalar variable name, in which case the variable
3330 contains the name of or a reference to the filehandle, thus introducing
3331 one level of indirection. (NOTE: If FILEHANDLE is a variable and
3332 the next token is a term, it may be misinterpreted as an operator
3333 unless you interpose a C<+> or put parentheses around the arguments.)
3334 If FILEHANDLE is omitted, prints by default to standard output (or
3335 to the last selected output channel--see L</select>). If LIST is
3336 also omitted, prints C<$_> to the currently selected output channel.
3337 To set the default output channel to something other than STDOUT
3338 use the select operation. The current value of C<$,> (if any) is
3339 printed between each LIST item. The current value of C<$\> (if
3340 any) is printed after the entire LIST has been printed. Because
3341 print takes a LIST, anything in the LIST is evaluated in list
3342 context, and any subroutine that you call will have one or more of
3343 its expressions evaluated in list context. Also be careful not to
3344 follow the print keyword with a left parenthesis unless you want
3345 the corresponding right parenthesis to terminate the arguments to
3346 the print--interpose a C<+> or put parentheses around all the
3349 Note that if you're storing FILEHANDLES in an array or other expression,
3350 you will have to use a block returning its value instead:
3352 print { $files[$i] } "stuff\n";
3353 print { $OK ? STDOUT : STDERR } "stuff\n";
3355 =item printf FILEHANDLE FORMAT, LIST
3357 =item printf FORMAT, LIST
3359 Equivalent to C<print FILEHANDLE sprintf(FORMAT, LIST)>, except that C<$\>
3360 (the output record separator) is not appended. The first argument
3361 of the list will be interpreted as the C<printf> format. If C<use locale> is
3362 in effect, the character used for the decimal point in formatted real numbers
3363 is affected by the LC_NUMERIC locale. See L<perllocale>.
3365 Don't fall into the trap of using a C<printf> when a simple
3366 C<print> would do. The C<print> is more efficient and less
3369 =item prototype FUNCTION
3371 Returns the prototype of a function as a string (or C<undef> if the
3372 function has no prototype). FUNCTION is a reference to, or the name of,
3373 the function whose prototype you want to retrieve.
3375 If FUNCTION is a string starting with C<CORE::>, the rest is taken as a
3376 name for Perl builtin. If the builtin is not I<overridable> (such as
3377 C<qw//>) or its arguments cannot be expressed by a prototype (such as
3378 C<system>) returns C<undef> because the builtin does not really behave
3379 like a Perl function. Otherwise, the string describing the equivalent
3380 prototype is returned.
3382 =item push ARRAY,LIST
3384 Treats ARRAY as a stack, and pushes the values of LIST
3385 onto the end of ARRAY. The length of ARRAY increases by the length of
3386 LIST. Has the same effect as
3389 $ARRAY[++$#ARRAY] = $value;
3392 but is more efficient. Returns the new number of elements in the array.
3404 Generalized quotes. See L<perlop/"Regexp Quote-Like Operators">.
3406 =item quotemeta EXPR
3410 Returns the value of EXPR with all non-alphanumeric
3411 characters backslashed. (That is, all characters not matching
3412 C</[A-Za-z_0-9]/> will be preceded by a backslash in the
3413 returned string, regardless of any locale settings.)
3414 This is the internal function implementing
3415 the C<\Q> escape in double-quoted strings.
3417 If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
3423 Returns a random fractional number greater than or equal to C<0> and less
3424 than the value of EXPR. (EXPR should be positive.) If EXPR is
3425 omitted, the value C<1> is used. Automatically calls C<srand> unless
3426 C<srand> has already been called. See also C<srand>.
3428 (Note: If your rand function consistently returns numbers that are too
3429 large or too small, then your version of Perl was probably compiled
3430 with the wrong number of RANDBITS.)
3432 =item read FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH,OFFSET
3434 =item read FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH
3436 Attempts to read LENGTH bytes of data into variable SCALAR from the
3437 specified FILEHANDLE. Returns the number of bytes actually read,
3438 C<0> at end of file, or undef if there was an error. SCALAR will be grown
3439 or shrunk to the length actually read. An OFFSET may be specified to
3440 place the read data at some other place than the beginning of the
3441 string. This call is actually implemented in terms of stdio's fread(3)
3442 call. To get a true read(2) system call, see C<sysread>.
3444 =item readdir DIRHANDLE
3446 Returns the next directory entry for a directory opened by C<opendir>.
3447 If used in list context, returns all the rest of the entries in the
3448 directory. If there are no more entries, returns an undefined value in
3449 scalar context or a null list in list context.
3451 If you're planning to filetest the return values out of a C<readdir>, you'd
3452 better prepend the directory in question. Otherwise, because we didn't
3453 C<chdir> there, it would have been testing the wrong file.
3455 opendir(DIR, $some_dir) || die "can't opendir $some_dir: $!";
3456 @dots = grep { /^\./ && -f "$some_dir/$_" } readdir(DIR);
3461 Reads from the filehandle whose typeglob is contained in EXPR. In scalar
3462 context, each call reads and returns the next line, until end-of-file is
3463 reached, whereupon the subsequent call returns undef. In list context,
3464 reads until end-of-file is reached and returns a list of lines. Note that
3465 the notion of "line" used here is however you may have defined it
3466 with C<$/> or C<$INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR>). See L<perlvar/"$/">.
3468 When C<$/> is set to C<undef>, when readline() is in scalar
3469 context (i.e. file slurp mode), and when an empty file is read, it
3470 returns C<''> the first time, followed by C<undef> subsequently.
3472 This is the internal function implementing the C<< <EXPR> >>
3473 operator, but you can use it directly. The C<< <EXPR> >>
3474 operator is discussed in more detail in L<perlop/"I/O Operators">.
3477 $line = readline(*STDIN); # same thing
3483 Returns the value of a symbolic link, if symbolic links are
3484 implemented. If not, gives a fatal error. If there is some system
3485 error, returns the undefined value and sets C<$!> (errno). If EXPR is
3486 omitted, uses C<$_>.
3490 EXPR is executed as a system command.
3491 The collected standard output of the command is returned.
3492 In scalar context, it comes back as a single (potentially
3493 multi-line) string. In list context, returns a list of lines
3494 (however you've defined lines with C<$/> or C<$INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR>).
3495 This is the internal function implementing the C<qx/EXPR/>
3496 operator, but you can use it directly. The C<qx/EXPR/>
3497 operator is discussed in more detail in L<perlop/"I/O Operators">.
3499 =item recv SOCKET,SCALAR,LENGTH,FLAGS
3501 Receives a message on a socket. Attempts to receive LENGTH bytes of
3502 data into variable SCALAR from the specified SOCKET filehandle. SCALAR
3503 will be grown or shrunk to the length actually read. Takes the same
3504 flags as the system call of the same name. Returns the address of the
3505 sender if SOCKET's protocol supports this; returns an empty string
3506 otherwise. If there's an error, returns the undefined value. This call
3507 is actually implemented in terms of recvfrom(2) system call. See
3508 L<perlipc/"UDP: Message Passing"> for examples.
3514 The C<redo> command restarts the loop block without evaluating the
3515 conditional again. The C<continue> block, if any, is not executed. If
3516 the LABEL is omitted, the command refers to the innermost enclosing
3517 loop. This command is normally used by programs that want to lie to
3518 themselves about what was just input:
3520 # a simpleminded Pascal comment stripper
3521 # (warning: assumes no { or } in strings)
3522 LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
3523 while (s|({.*}.*){.*}|$1 |) {}
3528 if (/}/) { # end of comment?
3537 C<redo> cannot be used to retry a block which returns a value such as
3538 C<eval {}>, C<sub {}> or C<do {}>, and should not be used to exit
3539 a grep() or map() operation.
3541 Note that a block by itself is semantically identical to a loop
3542 that executes once. Thus C<redo> inside such a block will effectively
3543 turn it into a looping construct.
3545 See also L</continue> for an illustration of how C<last>, C<next>, and
3552 Returns a true value if EXPR is a reference, false otherwise. If EXPR
3553 is not specified, C<$_> will be used. The value returned depends on the
3554 type of thing the reference is a reference to.
3555 Builtin types include:
3565 If the referenced object has been blessed into a package, then that package
3566 name is returned instead. You can think of C<ref> as a C<typeof> operator.
3568 if (ref($r) eq "HASH") {
3569 print "r is a reference to a hash.\n";
3572 print "r is not a reference at all.\n";
3574 if (UNIVERSAL::isa($r, "HASH")) { # for subclassing
3575 print "r is a reference to something that isa hash.\n";
3578 See also L<perlref>.
3580 =item rename OLDNAME,NEWNAME
3582 Changes the name of a file; an existing file NEWNAME will be
3583 clobbered. Returns true for success, false otherwise.
3585 Behavior of this function varies wildly depending on your system
3586 implementation. For example, it will usually not work across file system
3587 boundaries, even though the system I<mv> command sometimes compensates
3588 for this. Other restrictions include whether it works on directories,
3589 open files, or pre-existing files. Check L<perlport> and either the
3590 rename(2) manpage or equivalent system documentation for details.
3592 =item require VERSION
3598 Demands some semantics specified by EXPR, or by C<$_> if EXPR is not
3601 If a VERSION is specified as a literal of the form v5.6.1,
3602 demands that the current version of Perl (C<$^V> or $PERL_VERSION) be
3603 at least as recent as that version, at run time. (For compatibility
3604 with older versions of Perl, a numeric argument will also be interpreted
3605 as VERSION.) Compare with L</use>, which can do a similar check at
3608 require v5.6.1; # run time version check
3609 require 5.6.1; # ditto
3610 require 5.005_03; # float version allowed for compatibility
3612 Otherwise, demands that a library file be included if it hasn't already
3613 been included. The file is included via the do-FILE mechanism, which is
3614 essentially just a variety of C<eval>. Has semantics similar to the following
3619 return 1 if $INC{$filename};
3620 my($realfilename,$result);
3622 foreach $prefix (@INC) {
3623 $realfilename = "$prefix/$filename";
3624 if (-f $realfilename) {
3625 $INC{$filename} = $realfilename;
3626 $result = do $realfilename;
3630 die "Can't find $filename in \@INC";
3632 delete $INC{$filename} if $@ || !$result;
3634 die "$filename did not return true value" unless $result;
3638 Note that the file will not be included twice under the same specified
3639 name. The file must return true as the last statement to indicate
3640 successful execution of any initialization code, so it's customary to
3641 end such a file with C<1;> unless you're sure it'll return true
3642 otherwise. But it's better just to put the C<1;>, in case you add more
3645 If EXPR is a bareword, the require assumes a "F<.pm>" extension and
3646 replaces "F<::>" with "F</>" in the filename for you,
3647 to make it easy to load standard modules. This form of loading of
3648 modules does not risk altering your namespace.
3650 In other words, if you try this:
3652 require Foo::Bar; # a splendid bareword
3654 The require function will actually look for the "F<Foo/Bar.pm>" file in the
3655 directories specified in the C<@INC> array.
3657 But if you try this:
3659 $class = 'Foo::Bar';
3660 require $class; # $class is not a bareword
3662 require "Foo::Bar"; # not a bareword because of the ""
3664 The require function will look for the "F<Foo::Bar>" file in the @INC array and
3665 will complain about not finding "F<Foo::Bar>" there. In this case you can do:
3667 eval "require $class";
3669 For a yet-more-powerful import facility, see L</use> and L<perlmod>.
3675 Generally used in a C<continue> block at the end of a loop to clear
3676 variables and reset C<??> searches so that they work again. The
3677 expression is interpreted as a list of single characters (hyphens
3678 allowed for ranges). All variables and arrays beginning with one of
3679 those letters are reset to their pristine state. If the expression is
3680 omitted, one-match searches (C<?pattern?>) are reset to match again. Resets
3681 only variables or searches in the current package. Always returns
3684 reset 'X'; # reset all X variables
3685 reset 'a-z'; # reset lower case variables
3686 reset; # just reset ?one-time? searches
3688 Resetting C<"A-Z"> is not recommended because you'll wipe out your
3689 C<@ARGV> and C<@INC> arrays and your C<%ENV> hash. Resets only package
3690 variables--lexical variables are unaffected, but they clean themselves
3691 up on scope exit anyway, so you'll probably want to use them instead.
3698 Returns from a subroutine, C<eval>, or C<do FILE> with the value
3699 given in EXPR. Evaluation of EXPR may be in list, scalar, or void
3700 context, depending on how the return value will be used, and the context
3701 may vary from one execution to the next (see C<wantarray>). If no EXPR
3702 is given, returns an empty list in list context, the undefined value in
3703 scalar context, and (of course) nothing at all in a void context.
3705 (Note that in the absence of a explicit C<return>, a subroutine, eval,
3706 or do FILE will automatically return the value of the last expression
3711 In list context, returns a list value consisting of the elements
3712 of LIST in the opposite order. In scalar context, concatenates the
3713 elements of LIST and returns a string value with all characters
3714 in the opposite order.
3716 print reverse <>; # line tac, last line first
3718 undef $/; # for efficiency of <>
3719 print scalar reverse <>; # character tac, last line tsrif
3721 This operator is also handy for inverting a hash, although there are some
3722 caveats. If a value is duplicated in the original hash, only one of those
3723 can be represented as a key in the inverted hash. Also, this has to
3724 unwind one hash and build a whole new one, which may take some time
3725 on a large hash, such as from a DBM file.
3727 %by_name = reverse %by_address; # Invert the hash
3729 =item rewinddir DIRHANDLE
3731 Sets the current position to the beginning of the directory for the
3732 C<readdir> routine on DIRHANDLE.
3734 =item rindex STR,SUBSTR,POSITION
3736 =item rindex STR,SUBSTR
3738 Works just like index() except that it returns the position of the LAST
3739 occurrence of SUBSTR in STR. If POSITION is specified, returns the
3740 last occurrence at or before that position.
3742 =item rmdir FILENAME
3746 Deletes the directory specified by FILENAME if that directory is empty. If it
3747 succeeds it returns true, otherwise it returns false and sets C<$!> (errno). If
3748 FILENAME is omitted, uses C<$_>.
3752 The substitution operator. See L<perlop>.
3756 Forces EXPR to be interpreted in scalar context and returns the value
3759 @counts = ( scalar @a, scalar @b, scalar @c );
3761 There is no equivalent operator to force an expression to
3762 be interpolated in list context because in practice, this is never
3763 needed. If you really wanted to do so, however, you could use
3764 the construction C<@{[ (some expression) ]}>, but usually a simple
3765 C<(some expression)> suffices.
3767 Because C<scalar> is unary operator, if you accidentally use for EXPR a
3768 parenthesized list, this behaves as a scalar comma expression, evaluating
3769 all but the last element in void context and returning the final element
3770 evaluated in scalar context. This is seldom what you want.
3772 The following single statement:
3774 print uc(scalar(&foo,$bar)),$baz;
3776 is the moral equivalent of these two:
3779 print(uc($bar),$baz);
3781 See L<perlop> for more details on unary operators and the comma operator.
3783 =item seek FILEHANDLE,POSITION,WHENCE
3785 Sets FILEHANDLE's position, just like the C<fseek> call of C<stdio>.
3786 FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name of the
3787 filehandle. The values for WHENCE are C<0> to set the new position to
3788 POSITION, C<1> to set it to the current position plus POSITION, and
3789 C<2> to set it to EOF plus POSITION (typically negative). For WHENCE
3790 you may use the constants C<SEEK_SET>, C<SEEK_CUR>, and C<SEEK_END>
3791 (start of the file, current position, end of the file) from the Fcntl
3792 module. Returns C<1> upon success, C<0> otherwise.
3794 If you want to position file for C<sysread> or C<syswrite>, don't use
3795 C<seek>--buffering makes its effect on the file's system position
3796 unpredictable and non-portable. Use C<sysseek> instead.
3798 Due to the rules and rigors of ANSI C, on some systems you have to do a
3799 seek whenever you switch between reading and writing. Amongst other
3800 things, this may have the effect of calling stdio's clearerr(3).
3801 A WHENCE of C<1> (C<SEEK_CUR>) is useful for not moving the file position:
3805 This is also useful for applications emulating C<tail -f>. Once you hit
3806 EOF on your read, and then sleep for a while, you might have to stick in a
3807 seek() to reset things. The C<seek> doesn't change the current position,
3808 but it I<does> clear the end-of-file condition on the handle, so that the
3809 next C<< <FILE> >> makes Perl try again to read something. We hope.
3811 If that doesn't work (some stdios are particularly cantankerous), then
3812 you may need something more like this:
3815 for ($curpos = tell(FILE); $_ = <FILE>;
3816 $curpos = tell(FILE)) {
3817 # search for some stuff and put it into files
3819 sleep($for_a_while);
3820 seek(FILE, $curpos, 0);
3823 =item seekdir DIRHANDLE,POS
3825 Sets the current position for the C<readdir> routine on DIRHANDLE. POS
3826 must be a value returned by C<telldir>. Has the same caveats about
3827 possible directory compaction as the corresponding system library
3830 =item select FILEHANDLE
3834 Returns the currently selected filehandle. Sets the current default
3835 filehandle for output, if FILEHANDLE is supplied. This has two
3836 effects: first, a C<write> or a C<print> without a filehandle will
3837 default to this FILEHANDLE. Second, references to variables related to
3838 output will refer to this output channel. For example, if you have to
3839 set the top of form format for more than one output channel, you might
3847 FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name of the
3848 actual filehandle. Thus:
3850 $oldfh = select(STDERR); $| = 1; select($oldfh);
3852 Some programmers may prefer to think of filehandles as objects with
3853 methods, preferring to write the last example as:
3856 STDERR->autoflush(1);
3858 =item select RBITS,WBITS,EBITS,TIMEOUT
3860 This calls the select(2) system call with the bit masks specified, which
3861 can be constructed using C<fileno> and C<vec>, along these lines:
3863 $rin = $win = $ein = '';
3864 vec($rin,fileno(STDIN),1) = 1;
3865 vec($win,fileno(STDOUT),1) = 1;
3868 If you want to select on many filehandles you might wish to write a
3872 my(@fhlist) = split(' ',$_[0]);
3875 vec($bits,fileno($_),1) = 1;
3879 $rin = fhbits('STDIN TTY SOCK');
3883 ($nfound,$timeleft) =
3884 select($rout=$rin, $wout=$win, $eout=$ein, $timeout);
3886 or to block until something becomes ready just do this
3888 $nfound = select($rout=$rin, $wout=$win, $eout=$ein, undef);
3890 Most systems do not bother to return anything useful in $timeleft, so
3891 calling select() in scalar context just returns $nfound.
3893 Any of the bit masks can also be undef. The timeout, if specified, is
3894 in seconds, which may be fractional. Note: not all implementations are
3895 capable of returning the$timeleft. If not, they always return
3896 $timeleft equal to the supplied $timeout.
3898 You can effect a sleep of 250 milliseconds this way:
3900 select(undef, undef, undef, 0.25);
3902 B<WARNING>: One should not attempt to mix buffered I/O (like C<read>
3903 or <FH>) with C<select>, except as permitted by POSIX, and even
3904 then only on POSIX systems. You have to use C<sysread> instead.
3906 =item semctl ID,SEMNUM,CMD,ARG
3908 Calls the System V IPC function C<semctl>. You'll probably have to say
3912 first to get the correct constant definitions. If CMD is IPC_STAT or
3913 GETALL, then ARG must be a variable which will hold the returned
3914 semid_ds structure or semaphore value array. Returns like C<ioctl>:
3915 the undefined value for error, "C<0 but true>" for zero, or the actual
3916 return value otherwise. The ARG must consist of a vector of native
3917 short integers, which may may be created with C<pack("s!",(0)x$nsem)>.
3918 See also C<IPC::SysV> and C<IPC::Semaphore> documentation.
3920 =item semget KEY,NSEMS,FLAGS
3922 Calls the System V IPC function semget. Returns the semaphore id, or
3923 the undefined value if there is an error. See also C<IPC::SysV> and
3924 C<IPC::SysV::Semaphore> documentation.
3926 =item semop KEY,OPSTRING
3928 Calls the System V IPC function semop to perform semaphore operations
3929 such as signaling and waiting. OPSTRING must be a packed array of
3930 semop structures. Each semop structure can be generated with
3931 C<pack("sss", $semnum, $semop, $semflag)>. The number of semaphore
3932 operations is implied by the length of OPSTRING. Returns true if
3933 successful, or false if there is an error. As an example, the
3934 following code waits on semaphore $semnum of semaphore id $semid:
3936 $semop = pack("sss", $semnum, -1, 0);
3937 die "Semaphore trouble: $!\n" unless semop($semid, $semop);
3939 To signal the semaphore, replace C<-1> with C<1>. See also C<IPC::SysV>
3940 and C<IPC::SysV::Semaphore> documentation.
3942 =item send SOCKET,MSG,FLAGS,TO
3944 =item send SOCKET,MSG,FLAGS
3946 Sends a message on a socket. Takes the same flags as the system call
3947 of the same name. On unconnected sockets you must specify a
3948 destination to send TO, in which case it does a C C<sendto>. Returns
3949 the number of characters sent, or the undefined value if there is an
3950 error. The C system call sendmsg(2) is currently unimplemented.
3951 See L<perlipc/"UDP: Message Passing"> for examples.
3953 =item setpgrp PID,PGRP
3955 Sets the current process group for the specified PID, C<0> for the current
3956 process. Will produce a fatal error if used on a machine that doesn't
3957 implement POSIX setpgid(2) or BSD setpgrp(2). If the arguments are omitted,
3958 it defaults to C<0,0>. Note that the BSD 4.2 version of C<setpgrp> does not
3959 accept any arguments, so only C<setpgrp(0,0)> is portable. See also
3962 =item setpriority WHICH,WHO,PRIORITY
3964 Sets the current priority for a process, a process group, or a user.
3965 (See setpriority(2).) Will produce a fatal error if used on a machine
3966 that doesn't implement setpriority(2).
3968 =item setsockopt SOCKET,LEVEL,OPTNAME,OPTVAL
3970 Sets the socket option requested. Returns undefined if there is an
3971 error. OPTVAL may be specified as C<undef> if you don't want to pass an
3978 Shifts the first value of the array off and returns it, shortening the
3979 array by 1 and moving everything down. If there are no elements in the
3980 array, returns the undefined value. If ARRAY is omitted, shifts the
3981 C<@_> array within the lexical scope of subroutines and formats, and the
3982 C<@ARGV> array at file scopes or within the lexical scopes established by
3983 the C<eval ''>, C<BEGIN {}>, C<INIT {}>, C<CHECK {}>, and C<END {}>
3986 See also C<unshift>, C<push>, and C<pop>. C<Shift()> and C<unshift> do the
3987 same thing to the left end of an array that C<pop> and C<push> do to the
3990 =item shmctl ID,CMD,ARG
3992 Calls the System V IPC function shmctl. You'll probably have to say
3996 first to get the correct constant definitions. If CMD is C<IPC_STAT>,
3997 then ARG must be a variable which will hold the returned C<shmid_ds>
3998 structure. Returns like ioctl: the undefined value for error, "C<0> but
3999 true" for zero, or the actual return value otherwise.
4000 See also C<IPC::SysV> documentation.
4002 =item shmget KEY,SIZE,FLAGS
4004 Calls the System V IPC function shmget. Returns the shared memory
4005 segment id, or the undefined value if there is an error.
4006 See also C<IPC::SysV> documentation.
4008 =item shmread ID,VAR,POS,SIZE
4010 =item shmwrite ID,STRING,POS,SIZE
4012 Reads or writes the System V shared memory segment ID starting at
4013 position POS for size SIZE by attaching to it, copying in/out, and
4014 detaching from it. When reading, VAR must be a variable that will
4015 hold the data read. When writing, if STRING is too long, only SIZE
4016 bytes are used; if STRING is too short, nulls are written to fill out
4017 SIZE bytes. Return true if successful, or false if there is an error.
4018 See also C<IPC::SysV> documentation and the C<IPC::Shareable> module
4021 =item shutdown SOCKET,HOW
4023 Shuts down a socket connection in the manner indicated by HOW, which
4024 has the same interpretation as in the system call of the same name.
4026 shutdown(SOCKET, 0); # I/we have stopped reading data
4027 shutdown(SOCKET, 1); # I/we have stopped writing data
4028 shutdown(SOCKET, 2); # I/we have stopped using this socket
4030 This is useful with sockets when you want to tell the other
4031 side you're done writing but not done reading, or vice versa.
4032 It's also a more insistent form of close because it also
4033 disables the file descriptor in any forked copies in other
4040 Returns the sine of EXPR (expressed in radians). If EXPR is omitted,
4041 returns sine of C<$_>.
4043 For the inverse sine operation, you may use the C<Math::Trig::asin>
4044 function, or use this relation:
4046 sub asin { atan2($_[0], sqrt(1 - $_[0] * $_[0])) }
4052 Causes the script to sleep for EXPR seconds, or forever if no EXPR.
4053 May be interrupted if the process receives a signal such as C<SIGALRM>.
4054 Returns the number of seconds actually slept. You probably cannot
4055 mix C<alarm> and C<sleep> calls, because C<sleep> is often implemented
4058 On some older systems, it may sleep up to a full second less than what
4059 you requested, depending on how it counts seconds. Most modern systems
4060 always sleep the full amount. They may appear to sleep longer than that,
4061 however, because your process might not be scheduled right away in a
4062 busy multitasking system.
4064 For delays of finer granularity than one second, you may use Perl's
4065 C<syscall> interface to access setitimer(2) if your system supports
4066 it, or else see L</select> above. The Time::HiRes module from CPAN
4069 See also the POSIX module's C<sigpause> function.
4071 =item socket SOCKET,DOMAIN,TYPE,PROTOCOL
4073 Opens a socket of the specified kind and attaches it to filehandle
4074 SOCKET. DOMAIN, TYPE, and PROTOCOL are specified the same as for
4075 the system call of the same name. You should C<use Socket> first
4076 to get the proper definitions imported. See the examples in
4077 L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">.
4079 On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will
4080 be set for the newly opened file descriptor, as determined by the
4081 value of $^F. See L<perlvar/$^F>.
4083 =item socketpair SOCKET1,SOCKET2,DOMAIN,TYPE,PROTOCOL
4085 Creates an unnamed pair of sockets in the specified domain, of the
4086 specified type. DOMAIN, TYPE, and PROTOCOL are specified the same as
4087 for the system call of the same name. If unimplemented, yields a fatal
4088 error. Returns true if successful.
4090 On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will
4091 be set for the newly opened file descriptors, as determined by the value
4092 of $^F. See L<perlvar/$^F>.
4094 Some systems defined C<pipe> in terms of C<socketpair>, in which a call
4095 to C<pipe(Rdr, Wtr)> is essentially:
4098 socketpair(Rdr, Wtr, AF_UNIX, SOCK_STREAM, PF_UNSPEC);
4099 shutdown(Rdr, 1); # no more writing for reader
4100 shutdown(Wtr, 0); # no more reading for writer
4102 See L<perlipc> for an example of socketpair use.
4104 =item sort SUBNAME LIST
4106 =item sort BLOCK LIST
4110 Sorts the LIST and returns the sorted list value. If SUBNAME or BLOCK
4111 is omitted, C<sort>s in standard string comparison order. If SUBNAME is
4112 specified, it gives the name of a subroutine that returns an integer
4113 less than, equal to, or greater than C<0>, depending on how the elements
4114 of the list are to be ordered. (The C<< <=> >> and C<cmp>
4115 operators are extremely useful in such routines.) SUBNAME may be a
4116 scalar variable name (unsubscripted), in which case the value provides
4117 the name of (or a reference to) the actual subroutine to use. In place
4118 of a SUBNAME, you can provide a BLOCK as an anonymous, in-line sort
4121 If the subroutine's prototype is C<($$)>, the elements to be compared
4122 are passed by reference in C<@_>, as for a normal subroutine. This is
4123 slower than unprototyped subroutines, where the elements to be
4124 compared are passed into the subroutine
4125 as the package global variables $a and $b (see example below). Note that
4126 in the latter case, it is usually counter-productive to declare $a and
4129 In either case, the subroutine may not be recursive. The values to be
4130 compared are always passed by reference, so don't modify them.
4132 You also cannot exit out of the sort block or subroutine using any of the
4133 loop control operators described in L<perlsyn> or with C<goto>.
4135 When C<use locale> is in effect, C<sort LIST> sorts LIST according to the
4136 current collation locale. See L<perllocale>.
4141 @articles = sort @files;
4143 # same thing, but with explicit sort routine
4144 @articles = sort {$a cmp $b} @files;
4146 # now case-insensitively
4147 @articles = sort {uc($a) cmp uc($b)} @files;
4149 # same thing in reversed order
4150 @articles = sort {$b cmp $a} @files;
4152 # sort numerically ascending
4153 @articles = sort {$a <=> $b} @files;
4155 # sort numerically descending
4156 @articles = sort {$b <=> $a} @files;
4158 # this sorts the %age hash by value instead of key
4159 # using an in-line function
4160 @eldest = sort { $age{$b} <=> $age{$a} } keys %age;
4162 # sort using explicit subroutine name
4164 $age{$a} <=> $age{$b}; # presuming numeric
4166 @sortedclass = sort byage @class;
4168 sub backwards { $b cmp $a }
4169 @harry = qw(dog cat x Cain Abel);
4170 @george = qw(gone chased yz Punished Axed);
4172 # prints AbelCaincatdogx
4173 print sort backwards @harry;
4174 # prints xdogcatCainAbel
4175 print sort @george, 'to', @harry;
4176 # prints AbelAxedCainPunishedcatchaseddoggonetoxyz
4178 # inefficiently sort by descending numeric compare using
4179 # the first integer after the first = sign, or the
4180 # whole record case-insensitively otherwise
4183 ($b =~ /=(\d+)/)[0] <=> ($a =~ /=(\d+)/)[0]
4188 # same thing, but much more efficiently;
4189 # we'll build auxiliary indices instead
4193 push @nums, /=(\d+)/;
4198 $nums[$b] <=> $nums[$a]
4200 $caps[$a] cmp $caps[$b]
4204 # same thing, but without any temps
4205 @new = map { $_->[0] }
4206 sort { $b->[1] <=> $a->[1]
4209 } map { [$_, /=(\d+)/, uc($_)] } @old;
4211 # using a prototype allows you to use any comparison subroutine
4212 # as a sort subroutine (including other package's subroutines)
4214 sub backwards ($$) { $_[1] cmp $_[0]; } # $a and $b are not set here
4217 @new = sort other::backwards @old;
4219 If you're using strict, you I<must not> declare $a
4220 and $b as lexicals. They are package globals. That means
4221 if you're in the C<main> package, it's
4223 @articles = sort {$main::b <=> $main::a} @files;
4227 @articles = sort {$::b <=> $::a} @files;
4229 but if you're in the C<FooPack> package, it's
4231 @articles = sort {$FooPack::b <=> $FooPack::a} @files;
4233 The comparison function is required to behave. If it returns
4234 inconsistent results (sometimes saying C<$x[1]> is less than C<$x[2]> and
4235 sometimes saying the opposite, for example) the results are not
4238 =item splice ARRAY,OFFSET,LENGTH,LIST
4240 =item splice ARRAY,OFFSET,LENGTH
4242 =item splice ARRAY,OFFSET
4246 Removes the elements designated by OFFSET and LENGTH from an array, and
4247 replaces them with the elements of LIST, if any. In list context,
4248 returns the elements removed from the array. In scalar context,
4249 returns the last element removed, or C<undef> if no elements are
4250 removed. The array grows or shrinks as necessary.
4251 If OFFSET is negative then it starts that far from the end of the array.
4252 If LENGTH is omitted, removes everything from OFFSET onward.
4253 If LENGTH is negative, leaves that many elements off the end of the array.
4254 If both OFFSET and LENGTH are omitted, removes everything.
4256 The following equivalences hold (assuming C<$[ == 0>):
4258 push(@a,$x,$y) splice(@a,@a,0,$x,$y)
4259 pop(@a) splice(@a,-1)
4260 shift(@a) splice(@a,0,1)
4261 unshift(@a,$x,$y) splice(@a,0,0,$x,$y)
4262 $a[$x] = $y splice(@a,$x,1,$y)
4264 Example, assuming array lengths are passed before arrays:
4266 sub aeq { # compare two list values
4267 my(@a) = splice(@_,0,shift);
4268 my(@b) = splice(@_,0,shift);
4269 return 0 unless @a == @b; # same len?
4271 return 0 if pop(@a) ne pop(@b);
4275 if (&aeq($len,@foo[1..$len],0+@bar,@bar)) { ... }
4277 =item split /PATTERN/,EXPR,LIMIT
4279 =item split /PATTERN/,EXPR
4281 =item split /PATTERN/
4285 Splits a string into a list of strings and returns that list. By default,
4286 empty leading fields are preserved, and empty trailing ones are deleted.
4288 If not in list context, returns the number of fields found and splits into
4289 the C<@_> array. (In list context, you can force the split into C<@_> by
4290 using C<??> as the pattern delimiters, but it still returns the list
4291 value.) The use of implicit split to C<@_> is deprecated, however, because
4292 it clobbers your subroutine arguments.
4294 If EXPR is omitted, splits the C<$_> string. If PATTERN is also omitted,
4295 splits on whitespace (after skipping any leading whitespace). Anything
4296 matching PATTERN is taken to be a delimiter separating the fields. (Note
4297 that the delimiter may be longer than one character.)
4299 If LIMIT is specified and positive, splits into no more than that
4300 many fields (though it may split into fewer). If LIMIT is unspecified
4301 or zero, trailing null fields are stripped (which potential users
4302 of C<pop> would do well to remember). If LIMIT is negative, it is
4303 treated as if an arbitrarily large LIMIT had been specified.
4305 A pattern matching the null string (not to be confused with
4306 a null pattern C<//>, which is just one member of the set of patterns
4307 matching a null string) will split the value of EXPR into separate
4308 characters at each point it matches that way. For example:
4310 print join(':', split(/ */, 'hi there'));
4312 produces the output 'h:i:t:h:e:r:e'.
4314 The LIMIT parameter can be used to split a line partially
4316 ($login, $passwd, $remainder) = split(/:/, $_, 3);
4318 When assigning to a list, if LIMIT is omitted, Perl supplies a LIMIT
4319 one larger than the number of variables in the list, to avoid
4320 unnecessary work. For the list above LIMIT would have been 4 by
4321 default. In time critical applications it behooves you not to split
4322 into more fields than you really need.
4324 If the PATTERN contains parentheses, additional list elements are
4325 created from each matching substring in the delimiter.
4327 split(/([,-])/, "1-10,20", 3);
4329 produces the list value
4331 (1, '-', 10, ',', 20)
4333 If you had the entire header of a normal Unix email message in $header,
4334 you could split it up into fields and their values this way:
4336 $header =~ s/\n\s+/ /g; # fix continuation lines
4337 %hdrs = (UNIX_FROM => split /^(\S*?):\s*/m, $header);
4339 The pattern C</PATTERN/> may be replaced with an expression to specify
4340 patterns that vary at runtime. (To do runtime compilation only once,
4341 use C</$variable/o>.)
4343 As a special case, specifying a PATTERN of space (C<' '>) will split on
4344 white space just as C<split> with no arguments does. Thus, C<split(' ')> can
4345 be used to emulate B<awk>'s default behavior, whereas C<split(/ /)>
4346 will give you as many null initial fields as there are leading spaces.
4347 A C<split> on C</\s+/> is like a C<split(' ')> except that any leading
4348 whitespace produces a null first field. A C<split> with no arguments
4349 really does a C<split(' ', $_)> internally.
4353 open(PASSWD, '/etc/passwd');
4355 ($login, $passwd, $uid, $gid,
4356 $gcos, $home, $shell) = split(/:/);
4360 (Note that $shell above will still have a newline on it. See L</chop>,
4361 L</chomp>, and L</join>.)
4363 =item sprintf FORMAT, LIST
4365 Returns a string formatted by the usual C<printf> conventions of the
4366 C library function C<sprintf>. See L<sprintf(3)> or L<printf(3)>
4367 on your system for an explanation of the general principles.
4369 Perl does its own C<sprintf> formatting--it emulates the C
4370 function C<sprintf>, but it doesn't use it (except for floating-point
4371 numbers, and even then only the standard modifiers are allowed). As a
4372 result, any non-standard extensions in your local C<sprintf> are not
4373 available from Perl.
4375 Perl's C<sprintf> permits the following universally-known conversions:
4378 %c a character with the given number
4380 %d a signed integer, in decimal
4381 %u an unsigned integer, in decimal
4382 %o an unsigned integer, in octal
4383 %x an unsigned integer, in hexadecimal
4384 %e a floating-point number, in scientific notation
4385 %f a floating-point number, in fixed decimal notation
4386 %g a floating-point number, in %e or %f notation
4388 In addition, Perl permits the following widely-supported conversions:
4390 %X like %x, but using upper-case letters
4391 %E like %e, but using an upper-case "E"
4392 %G like %g, but with an upper-case "E" (if applicable)
4393 %b an unsigned integer, in binary
4394 %p a pointer (outputs the Perl value's address in hexadecimal)
4395 %n special: *stores* the number of characters output so far
4396 into the next variable in the parameter list
4398 Finally, for backward (and we do mean "backward") compatibility, Perl
4399 permits these unnecessary but widely-supported conversions:
4402 %D a synonym for %ld
4403 %U a synonym for %lu
4404 %O a synonym for %lo
4407 Perl permits the following universally-known flags between the C<%>
4408 and the conversion letter:
4410 space prefix positive number with a space
4411 + prefix positive number with a plus sign
4412 - left-justify within the field
4413 0 use zeros, not spaces, to right-justify
4414 # prefix non-zero octal with "0", non-zero hex with "0x"
4415 number minimum field width
4416 .number "precision": digits after decimal point for
4417 floating-point, max length for string, minimum length
4419 l interpret integer as C type "long" or "unsigned long"
4420 h interpret integer as C type "short" or "unsigned short"
4421 If no flags, interpret integer as C type "int" or "unsigned"
4423 There are also two Perl-specific flags:
4425 V interpret integer as Perl's standard integer type
4426 v interpret string as a vector of integers, output as
4427 numbers separated either by dots, or by an arbitrary
4428 string received from the argument list when the flag
4431 Where a number would appear in the flags, an asterisk (C<*>) may be
4432 used instead, in which case Perl uses the next item in the parameter
4433 list as the given number (that is, as the field width or precision).
4434 If a field width obtained through C<*> is negative, it has the same
4435 effect as the C<-> flag: left-justification.
4437 The C<v> flag is useful for displaying ordinal values of characters
4438 in arbitrary strings:
4440 printf "version is v%vd\n", $^V; # Perl's version
4441 printf "address is %*vX\n", ":", $addr; # IPv6 address
4442 printf "bits are %*vb\n", " ", $bits; # random bitstring
4444 If C<use locale> is in effect, the character used for the decimal
4445 point in formatted real numbers is affected by the LC_NUMERIC locale.
4448 If Perl understands "quads" (64-bit integers) (this requires
4449 either that the platform natively support quads or that Perl
4450 be specifically compiled to support quads), the characters
4454 print quads, and they may optionally be preceded by
4462 You can find out whether your Perl supports quads via L<Config>:
4465 ($Config{use64bitint} eq 'define' || $Config{longsize} == 8) &&
4468 If Perl understands "long doubles" (this requires that the platform
4469 support long doubles), the flags
4473 may optionally be preceded by
4481 You can find out whether your Perl supports long doubles via L<Config>:
4484 $Config{d_longdbl} eq 'define' && print "long doubles\n";
4490 Return the square root of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, returns square
4491 root of C<$_>. Only works on non-negative operands, unless you've
4492 loaded the standard Math::Complex module.
4495 print sqrt(-2); # prints 1.4142135623731i
4501 Sets the random number seed for the C<rand> operator. If EXPR is
4502 omitted, uses a semi-random value supplied by the kernel (if it supports
4503 the F</dev/urandom> device) or based on the current time and process
4504 ID, among other things. In versions of Perl prior to 5.004 the default
4505 seed was just the current C<time>. This isn't a particularly good seed,
4506 so many old programs supply their own seed value (often C<time ^ $$> or
4507 C<time ^ ($$ + ($$ << 15))>), but that isn't necessary any more.
4509 In fact, it's usually not necessary to call C<srand> at all, because if
4510 it is not called explicitly, it is called implicitly at the first use of
4511 the C<rand> operator. However, this was not the case in version of Perl
4512 before 5.004, so if your script will run under older Perl versions, it
4513 should call C<srand>.
4515 Note that you need something much more random than the default seed for
4516 cryptographic purposes. Checksumming the compressed output of one or more
4517 rapidly changing operating system status programs is the usual method. For
4520 srand (time ^ $$ ^ unpack "%L*", `ps axww | gzip`);
4522 If you're particularly concerned with this, see the C<Math::TrulyRandom>
4525 Do I<not> call C<srand> multiple times in your program unless you know
4526 exactly what you're doing and why you're doing it. The point of the
4527 function is to "seed" the C<rand> function so that C<rand> can produce
4528 a different sequence each time you run your program. Just do it once at the
4529 top of your program, or you I<won't> get random numbers out of C<rand>!
4531 Frequently called programs (like CGI scripts) that simply use
4535 for a seed can fall prey to the mathematical property that
4539 one-third of the time. So don't do that.
4541 =item stat FILEHANDLE
4547 Returns a 13-element list giving the status info for a file, either
4548 the file opened via FILEHANDLE, or named by EXPR. If EXPR is omitted,
4549 it stats C<$_>. Returns a null list if the stat fails. Typically used
4552 ($dev,$ino,$mode,$nlink,$uid,$gid,$rdev,$size,
4553 $atime,$mtime,$ctime,$blksize,$blocks)
4556 Not all fields are supported on all filesystem types. Here are the
4557 meaning of the fields:
4559 0 dev device number of filesystem
4561 2 mode file mode (type and permissions)
4562 3 nlink number of (hard) links to the file
4563 4 uid numeric user ID of file's owner
4564 5 gid numeric group ID of file's owner
4565 6 rdev the device identifier (special files only)
4566 7 size total size of file, in bytes
4567 8 atime last access time in seconds since the epoch
4568 9 mtime last modify time in seconds since the epoch
4569 10 ctime inode change time (NOT creation time!) in seconds since the epoch
4570 11 blksize preferred block size for file system I/O
4571 12 blocks actual number of blocks allocated
4573 (The epoch was at 00:00 January 1, 1970 GMT.)
4575 If stat is passed the special filehandle consisting of an underline, no
4576 stat is done, but the current contents of the stat structure from the
4577 last stat or filetest are returned. Example:
4579 if (-x $file && (($d) = stat(_)) && $d < 0) {
4580 print "$file is executable NFS file\n";
4583 (This works on machines only for which the device number is negative
4586 Because the mode contains both the file type and its permissions, you
4587 should mask off the file type portion and (s)printf using a C<"%o">
4588 if you want to see the real permissions.
4590 $mode = (stat($filename))[2];
4591 printf "Permissions are %04o\n", $mode & 07777;
4593 In scalar context, C<stat> returns a boolean value indicating success
4594 or failure, and, if successful, sets the information associated with
4595 the special filehandle C<_>.
4597 The File::stat module provides a convenient, by-name access mechanism:
4600 $sb = stat($filename);
4601 printf "File is %s, size is %s, perm %04o, mtime %s\n",
4602 $filename, $sb->size, $sb->mode & 07777,
4603 scalar localtime $sb->mtime;
4605 You can import symbolic mode constants (C<S_IF*>) and functions
4606 (C<S_IS*>) from the Fcntl module:
4610 $mode = (stat($filename))[2];
4612 $user_rwx = ($mode & S_IRWXU) >> 6;
4613 $group_read = ($mode & S_IRGRP) >> 3;
4614 $other_execute = $mode & S_IXOTH;
4616 printf "Permissions are %04o\n", S_ISMODE($mode), "\n";
4618 $is_setuid = $mode & S_ISUID;
4619 $is_setgid = S_ISDIR($mode);
4621 You could write the last two using the C<-u> and C<-d> operators.
4622 The commonly available S_IF* constants are
4624 # Permissions: read, write, execute, for user, group, others.
4626 S_IRWXU S_IRUSR S_IWUSR S_IXUSR
4627 S_IRWXG S_IRGRP S_IWGRP S_IXGRP
4628 S_IRWXO S_IROTH S_IWOTH S_IXOTH
4630 # Setuid/Setgid/Stickiness.
4632 S_ISUID S_ISGID S_ISVTX S_ISTXT
4634 # File types. Not necessarily all are available on your system.
4636 S_IFREG S_IFDIR S_IFLNK S_IFBLK S_ISCHR S_IFIFO S_IFSOCK S_IFWHT S_ENFMT
4638 # The following are compatibility aliases for S_IRUSR, S_IWUSR, S_IXUSR.
4640 S_IREAD S_IWRITE S_IEXEC
4642 and the S_IF* functions are
4644 S_IFMODE($mode) the part of $mode containg the permission bits
4645 and the setuid/setgid/sticky bits
4647 S_IFMT($mode) the part of $mode containing the file type
4648 which can be bit-anded with e.g. S_IFREG
4649 or with the following functions
4651 # The operators -f, -d, -l, -b, -c, -p, and -s.
4653 S_ISREG($mode) S_ISDIR($mode) S_ISLNK($mode)
4654 S_ISBLK($mode) S_ISCHR($mode) S_ISFIFO($mode) S_ISSOCK($mode)
4656 # No direct -X operator counterpart, but for the first one
4657 # the -g operator is often equivalent. The ENFMT stands for
4658 # record flocking enforcement, a platform-dependent feature.
4660 S_ISENFMT($mode) S_ISWHT($mode)
4662 See your native chmod(2) and stat(2) documentation for more details
4663 about the S_* constants.
4669 Takes extra time to study SCALAR (C<$_> if unspecified) in anticipation of
4670 doing many pattern matches on the string before it is next modified.
4671 This may or may not save time, depending on the nature and number of
4672 patterns you are searching on, and on the distribution of character
4673 frequencies in the string to be searched--you probably want to compare
4674 run times with and without it to see which runs faster. Those loops
4675 which scan for many short constant strings (including the constant
4676 parts of more complex patterns) will benefit most. You may have only
4677 one C<study> active at a time--if you study a different scalar the first
4678 is "unstudied". (The way C<study> works is this: a linked list of every
4679 character in the string to be searched is made, so we know, for
4680 example, where all the C<'k'> characters are. From each search string,
4681 the rarest character is selected, based on some static frequency tables
4682 constructed from some C programs and English text. Only those places
4683 that contain this "rarest" character are examined.)
4685 For example, here is a loop that inserts index producing entries
4686 before any line containing a certain pattern:
4690 print ".IX foo\n" if /\bfoo\b/;
4691 print ".IX bar\n" if /\bbar\b/;
4692 print ".IX blurfl\n" if /\bblurfl\b/;
4697 In searching for C</\bfoo\b/>, only those locations in C<$_> that contain C<f>
4698 will be looked at, because C<f> is rarer than C<o>. In general, this is
4699 a big win except in pathological cases. The only question is whether
4700 it saves you more time than it took to build the linked list in the
4703 Note that if you have to look for strings that you don't know till
4704 runtime, you can build an entire loop as a string and C<eval> that to
4705 avoid recompiling all your patterns all the time. Together with
4706 undefining C<$/> to input entire files as one record, this can be very
4707 fast, often faster than specialized programs like fgrep(1). The following
4708 scans a list of files (C<@files>) for a list of words (C<@words>), and prints
4709 out the names of those files that contain a match:
4711 $search = 'while (<>) { study;';
4712 foreach $word (@words) {
4713 $search .= "++\$seen{\$ARGV} if /\\b$word\\b/;\n";
4718 eval $search; # this screams
4719 $/ = "\n"; # put back to normal input delimiter
4720 foreach $file (sort keys(%seen)) {
4728 =item sub NAME BLOCK
4730 This is subroutine definition, not a real function I<per se>. With just a
4731 NAME (and possibly prototypes or attributes), it's just a forward declaration.
4732 Without a NAME, it's an anonymous function declaration, and does actually
4733 return a value: the CODE ref of the closure you just created. See L<perlsub>
4734 and L<perlref> for details.
4736 =item substr EXPR,OFFSET,LENGTH,REPLACEMENT
4738 =item substr EXPR,OFFSET,LENGTH
4740 =item substr EXPR,OFFSET
4742 Extracts a substring out of EXPR and returns it. First character is at
4743 offset C<0>, or whatever you've set C<$[> to (but don't do that).
4744 If OFFSET is negative (or more precisely, less than C<$[>), starts
4745 that far from the end of the string. If LENGTH is omitted, returns
4746 everything to the end of the string. If LENGTH is negative, leaves that
4747 many characters off the end of the string.
4749 You can use the substr() function as an lvalue, in which case EXPR
4750 must itself be an lvalue. If you assign something shorter than LENGTH,
4751 the string will shrink, and if you assign something longer than LENGTH,
4752 the string will grow to accommodate it. To keep the string the same
4753 length you may need to pad or chop your value using C<sprintf>.
4755 If OFFSET and LENGTH specify a substring that is partly outside the
4756 string, only the part within the string is returned. If the substring
4757 is beyond either end of the string, substr() returns the undefined
4758 value and produces a warning. When used as an lvalue, specifying a
4759 substring that is entirely outside the string is a fatal error.
4760 Here's an example showing the behavior for boundary cases:
4763 substr($name, 4) = 'dy'; # $name is now 'freddy'
4764 my $null = substr $name, 6, 2; # returns '' (no warning)
4765 my $oops = substr $name, 7; # returns undef, with warning
4766 substr($name, 7) = 'gap'; # fatal error
4768 An alternative to using substr() as an lvalue is to specify the
4769 replacement string as the 4th argument. This allows you to replace
4770 parts of the EXPR and return what was there before in one operation,
4771 just as you can with splice().
4773 =item symlink OLDFILE,NEWFILE
4775 Creates a new filename symbolically linked to the old filename.
4776 Returns C<1> for success, C<0> otherwise. On systems that don't support
4777 symbolic links, produces a fatal error at run time. To check for that,
4780 $symlink_exists = eval { symlink("",""); 1 };
4784 Calls the system call specified as the first element of the list,
4785 passing the remaining elements as arguments to the system call. If
4786 unimplemented, produces a fatal error. The arguments are interpreted
4787 as follows: if a given argument is numeric, the argument is passed as
4788 an int. If not, the pointer to the string value is passed. You are
4789 responsible to make sure a string is pre-extended long enough to
4790 receive any result that might be written into a string. You can't use a
4791 string literal (or other read-only string) as an argument to C<syscall>
4792 because Perl has to assume that any string pointer might be written
4794 integer arguments are not literals and have never been interpreted in a
4795 numeric context, you may need to add C<0> to them to force them to look
4796 like numbers. This emulates the C<syswrite> function (or vice versa):
4798 require 'syscall.ph'; # may need to run h2ph
4800 syscall(&SYS_write, fileno(STDOUT), $s, length $s);
4802 Note that Perl supports passing of up to only 14 arguments to your system call,
4803 which in practice should usually suffice.
4805 Syscall returns whatever value returned by the system call it calls.
4806 If the system call fails, C<syscall> returns C<-1> and sets C<$!> (errno).
4807 Note that some system calls can legitimately return C<-1>. The proper
4808 way to handle such calls is to assign C<$!=0;> before the call and
4809 check the value of C<$!> if syscall returns C<-1>.
4811 There's a problem with C<syscall(&SYS_pipe)>: it returns the file
4812 number of the read end of the pipe it creates. There is no way
4813 to retrieve the file number of the other end. You can avoid this
4814 problem by using C<pipe> instead.
4816 =item sysopen FILEHANDLE,FILENAME,MODE
4818 =item sysopen FILEHANDLE,FILENAME,MODE,PERMS
4820 Opens the file whose filename is given by FILENAME, and associates it
4821 with FILEHANDLE. If FILEHANDLE is an expression, its value is used as
4822 the name of the real filehandle wanted. This function calls the
4823 underlying operating system's C<open> function with the parameters
4824 FILENAME, MODE, PERMS.
4826 The possible values and flag bits of the MODE parameter are
4827 system-dependent; they are available via the standard module C<Fcntl>.
4828 See the documentation of your operating system's C<open> to see which
4829 values and flag bits are available. You may combine several flags
4830 using the C<|>-operator.
4832 Some of the most common values are C<O_RDONLY> for opening the file in
4833 read-only mode, C<O_WRONLY> for opening the file in write-only mode,
4834 and C<O_RDWR> for opening the file in read-write mode, and.
4836 For historical reasons, some values work on almost every system
4837 supported by perl: zero means read-only, one means write-only, and two
4838 means read/write. We know that these values do I<not> work under
4839 OS/390 & VM/ESA Unix and on the Macintosh; you probably don't want to
4840 use them in new code.
4842 If the file named by FILENAME does not exist and the C<open> call creates
4843 it (typically because MODE includes the C<O_CREAT> flag), then the value of
4844 PERMS specifies the permissions of the newly created file. If you omit
4845 the PERMS argument to C<sysopen>, Perl uses the octal value C<0666>.
4846 These permission values need to be in octal, and are modified by your
4847 process's current C<umask>.
4849 In many systems the C<O_EXCL> flag is available for opening files in
4850 exclusive mode. This is B<not> locking: exclusiveness means here that
4851 if the file already exists, sysopen() fails. The C<O_EXCL> wins
4854 Sometimes you may want to truncate an already-existing file: C<O_TRUNC>.
4856 You should seldom if ever use C<0644> as argument to C<sysopen>, because
4857 that takes away the user's option to have a more permissive umask.
4858 Better to omit it. See the perlfunc(1) entry on C<umask> for more
4861 Note that C<sysopen> depends on the fdopen() C library function.
4862 On many UNIX systems, fdopen() is known to fail when file descriptors
4863 exceed a certain value, typically 255. If you need more file
4864 descriptors than that, consider rebuilding Perl to use the C<sfio>
4865 library, or perhaps using the POSIX::open() function.
4867 See L<perlopentut> for a kinder, gentler explanation of opening files.
4869 =item sysread FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH,OFFSET
4871 =item sysread FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH
4873 Attempts to read LENGTH bytes of data into variable SCALAR from the
4874 specified FILEHANDLE, using the system call read(2). It bypasses stdio,
4875 so mixing this with other kinds of reads, C<print>, C<write>,
4876 C<seek>, C<tell>, or C<eof> can cause confusion because stdio
4877 usually buffers data. Returns the number of bytes actually read, C<0>
4878 at end of file, or undef if there was an error. SCALAR will be grown or
4879 shrunk so that the last byte actually read is the last byte of the
4880 scalar after the read.
4882 An OFFSET may be specified to place the read data at some place in the
4883 string other than the beginning. A negative OFFSET specifies
4884 placement at that many bytes counting backwards from the end of the
4885 string. A positive OFFSET greater than the length of SCALAR results
4886 in the string being padded to the required size with C<"\0"> bytes before
4887 the result of the read is appended.
4889 There is no syseof() function, which is ok, since eof() doesn't work
4890 very well on device files (like ttys) anyway. Use sysread() and check
4891 for a return value for 0 to decide whether you're done.
4893 =item sysseek FILEHANDLE,POSITION,WHENCE
4895 Sets FILEHANDLE's system position using the system call lseek(2). It
4896 bypasses stdio, so mixing this with reads (other than C<sysread>),
4897 C<print>, C<write>, C<seek>, C<tell>, or C<eof> may cause confusion.
4898 FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name of the
4899 filehandle. The values for WHENCE are C<0> to set the new position to
4900 POSITION, C<1> to set the it to the current position plus POSITION,
4901 and C<2> to set it to EOF plus POSITION (typically negative). For
4902 WHENCE, you may also use the constants C<SEEK_SET>, C<SEEK_CUR>, and
4903 C<SEEK_END> (start of the file, current position, end of the file)
4904 from the Fcntl module.
4906 Returns the new position, or the undefined value on failure. A position
4907 of zero is returned as the string C<"0 but true">; thus C<sysseek> returns
4908 true on success and false on failure, yet you can still easily determine
4913 =item system PROGRAM LIST
4915 Does exactly the same thing as C<exec LIST>, except that a fork is
4916 done first, and the parent process waits for the child process to
4917 complete. Note that argument processing varies depending on the
4918 number of arguments. If there is more than one argument in LIST,
4919 or if LIST is an array with more than one value, starts the program
4920 given by the first element of the list with arguments given by the
4921 rest of the list. If there is only one scalar argument, the argument
4922 is checked for shell metacharacters, and if there are any, the
4923 entire argument is passed to the system's command shell for parsing
4924 (this is C</bin/sh -c> on Unix platforms, but varies on other
4925 platforms). If there are no shell metacharacters in the argument,
4926 it is split into words and passed directly to C<execvp>, which is
4929 Beginning with v5.6.0, Perl will attempt to flush all files opened for
4930 output before any operation that may do a fork, but this may not be
4931 supported on some platforms (see L<perlport>). To be safe, you may need
4932 to set C<$|> ($AUTOFLUSH in English) or call the C<autoflush()> method
4933 of C<IO::Handle> on any open handles.
4935 The return value is the exit status of the program as
4936 returned by the C<wait> call. To get the actual exit value divide by
4937 256. See also L</exec>. This is I<not> what you want to use to capture
4938 the output from a command, for that you should use merely backticks or
4939 C<qx//>, as described in L<perlop/"`STRING`">. Return value of -1
4940 indicates a failure to start the program (inspect $! for the reason).
4942 Like C<exec>, C<system> allows you to lie to a program about its name if
4943 you use the C<system PROGRAM LIST> syntax. Again, see L</exec>.
4945 Because C<system> and backticks block C<SIGINT> and C<SIGQUIT>, killing the
4946 program they're running doesn't actually interrupt your program.
4948 @args = ("command", "arg1", "arg2");
4950 or die "system @args failed: $?"
4952 You can check all the failure possibilities by inspecting
4955 $exit_value = $? >> 8;
4956 $signal_num = $? & 127;
4957 $dumped_core = $? & 128;
4959 When the arguments get executed via the system shell, results
4960 and return codes will be subject to its quirks and capabilities.
4961 See L<perlop/"`STRING`"> and L</exec> for details.
4963 =item syswrite FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH,OFFSET
4965 =item syswrite FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH
4967 =item syswrite FILEHANDLE,SCALAR
4969 Attempts to write LENGTH bytes of data from variable SCALAR to the
4970 specified FILEHANDLE, using the system call write(2). If LENGTH
4971 is not specified, writes whole SCALAR. It bypasses stdio, so mixing
4972 this with reads (other than C<sysread())>, C<print>, C<write>,
4973 C<seek>, C<tell>, or C<eof> may cause confusion because stdio
4974 usually buffers data. Returns the number of bytes actually written,
4975 or C<undef> if there was an error. If the LENGTH is greater than
4976 the available data in the SCALAR after the OFFSET, only as much
4977 data as is available will be written.
4979 An OFFSET may be specified to write the data from some part of the
4980 string other than the beginning. A negative OFFSET specifies writing
4981 that many bytes counting backwards from the end of the string. In the
4982 case the SCALAR is empty you can use OFFSET but only zero offset.
4984 =item tell FILEHANDLE
4988 Returns the current position for FILEHANDLE. FILEHANDLE may be an
4989 expression whose value gives the name of the actual filehandle. If
4990 FILEHANDLE is omitted, assumes the file last read.
4992 There is no C<systell> function. Use C<sysseek(FH, 0, 1)> for that.
4994 =item telldir DIRHANDLE
4996 Returns the current position of the C<readdir> routines on DIRHANDLE.
4997 Value may be given to C<seekdir> to access a particular location in a
4998 directory. Has the same caveats about possible directory compaction as
4999 the corresponding system library routine.
5001 =item tie VARIABLE,CLASSNAME,LIST
5003 This function binds a variable to a package class that will provide the
5004 implementation for the variable. VARIABLE is the name of the variable
5005 to be enchanted. CLASSNAME is the name of a class implementing objects
5006 of correct type. Any additional arguments are passed to the C<new>
5007 method of the class (meaning C<TIESCALAR>, C<TIEHANDLE>, C<TIEARRAY>,
5008 or C<TIEHASH>). Typically these are arguments such as might be passed
5009 to the C<dbm_open()> function of C. The object returned by the C<new>
5010 method is also returned by the C<tie> function, which would be useful
5011 if you want to access other methods in CLASSNAME.
5013 Note that functions such as C<keys> and C<values> may return huge lists
5014 when used on large objects, like DBM files. You may prefer to use the
5015 C<each> function to iterate over such. Example:
5017 # print out history file offsets
5019 tie(%HIST, 'NDBM_File', '/usr/lib/news/history', 1, 0);
5020 while (($key,$val) = each %HIST) {
5021 print $key, ' = ', unpack('L',$val), "\n";
5025 A class implementing a hash should have the following methods:
5027 TIEHASH classname, LIST
5029 STORE this, key, value
5034 NEXTKEY this, lastkey
5037 A class implementing an ordinary array should have the following methods:
5039 TIEARRAY classname, LIST
5041 STORE this, key, value
5043 STORESIZE this, count
5049 SPLICE this, offset, length, LIST
5053 A class implementing a file handle should have the following methods:
5055 TIEHANDLE classname, LIST
5056 READ this, scalar, length, offset
5059 WRITE this, scalar, length, offset
5061 PRINTF this, format, LIST
5065 A class implementing a scalar should have the following methods:
5067 TIESCALAR classname, LIST
5072 Not all methods indicated above need be implemented. See L<perltie>,
5073 L<Tie::Hash>, L<Tie::Array>, L<Tie::Scalar>, and L<Tie::Handle>.
5075 Unlike C<dbmopen>, the C<tie> function will not use or require a module
5076 for you--you need to do that explicitly yourself. See L<DB_File>
5077 or the F<Config> module for interesting C<tie> implementations.
5079 For further details see L<perltie>, L<"tied VARIABLE">.
5083 Returns a reference to the object underlying VARIABLE (the same value
5084 that was originally returned by the C<tie> call that bound the variable
5085 to a package.) Returns the undefined value if VARIABLE isn't tied to a
5090 Returns the number of non-leap seconds since whatever time the system
5091 considers to be the epoch (that's 00:00:00, January 1, 1904 for MacOS,
5092 and 00:00:00 UTC, January 1, 1970 for most other systems).
5093 Suitable for feeding to C<gmtime> and C<localtime>.
5095 For measuring time in better granularity than one second,
5096 you may use either the Time::HiRes module from CPAN, or
5097 if you have gettimeofday(2), you may be able to use the
5098 C<syscall> interface of Perl, see L<perlfaq8> for details.
5102 Returns a four-element list giving the user and system times, in
5103 seconds, for this process and the children of this process.
5105 ($user,$system,$cuser,$csystem) = times;
5109 The transliteration operator. Same as C<y///>. See L<perlop>.
5111 =item truncate FILEHANDLE,LENGTH
5113 =item truncate EXPR,LENGTH
5115 Truncates the file opened on FILEHANDLE, or named by EXPR, to the
5116 specified length. Produces a fatal error if truncate isn't implemented
5117 on your system. Returns true if successful, the undefined value
5124 Returns an uppercased version of EXPR. This is the internal function
5125 implementing the C<\U> escape in double-quoted strings.
5126 Respects current LC_CTYPE locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale>.
5127 Under Unicode (C<use utf8>) it uses the standard Unicode uppercase mappings. (It
5128 does not attempt to do titlecase mapping on initial letters. See C<ucfirst> for that.)
5130 If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
5136 Returns the value of EXPR with the first character
5137 in uppercase (titlecase in Unicode). This is
5138 the internal function implementing the C<\u> escape in double-quoted strings.
5139 Respects current LC_CTYPE locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale>
5142 If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
5148 Sets the umask for the process to EXPR and returns the previous value.
5149 If EXPR is omitted, merely returns the current umask.
5151 The Unix permission C<rwxr-x---> is represented as three sets of three
5152 bits, or three octal digits: C<0750> (the leading 0 indicates octal
5153 and isn't one of the digits). The C<umask> value is such a number
5154 representing disabled permissions bits. The permission (or "mode")
5155 values you pass C<mkdir> or C<sysopen> are modified by your umask, so
5156 even if you tell C<sysopen> to create a file with permissions C<0777>,
5157 if your umask is C<0022> then the file will actually be created with
5158 permissions C<0755>. If your C<umask> were C<0027> (group can't
5159 write; others can't read, write, or execute), then passing
5160 C<sysopen> C<0666> would create a file with mode C<0640> (C<0666 &~
5163 Here's some advice: supply a creation mode of C<0666> for regular
5164 files (in C<sysopen>) and one of C<0777> for directories (in
5165 C<mkdir>) and executable files. This gives users the freedom of
5166 choice: if they want protected files, they might choose process umasks
5167 of C<022>, C<027>, or even the particularly antisocial mask of C<077>.
5168 Programs should rarely if ever make policy decisions better left to
5169 the user. The exception to this is when writing files that should be
5170 kept private: mail files, web browser cookies, I<.rhosts> files, and
5173 If umask(2) is not implemented on your system and you are trying to
5174 restrict access for I<yourself> (i.e., (EXPR & 0700) > 0), produces a
5175 fatal error at run time. If umask(2) is not implemented and you are
5176 not trying to restrict access for yourself, returns C<undef>.
5178 Remember that a umask is a number, usually given in octal; it is I<not> a
5179 string of octal digits. See also L</oct>, if all you have is a string.
5185 Undefines the value of EXPR, which must be an lvalue. Use only on a
5186 scalar value, an array (using C<@>), a hash (using C<%>), a subroutine
5187 (using C<&>), or a typeglob (using <*>). (Saying C<undef $hash{$key}>
5188 will probably not do what you expect on most predefined variables or
5189 DBM list values, so don't do that; see L<delete>.) Always returns the
5190 undefined value. You can omit the EXPR, in which case nothing is
5191 undefined, but you still get an undefined value that you could, for
5192 instance, return from a subroutine, assign to a variable or pass as a
5193 parameter. Examples:
5196 undef $bar{'blurfl'}; # Compare to: delete $bar{'blurfl'};
5200 undef *xyz; # destroys $xyz, @xyz, %xyz, &xyz, etc.
5201 return (wantarray ? (undef, $errmsg) : undef) if $they_blew_it;
5202 select undef, undef, undef, 0.25;
5203 ($a, $b, undef, $c) = &foo; # Ignore third value returned
5205 Note that this is a unary operator, not a list operator.
5211 Deletes a list of files. Returns the number of files successfully
5214 $cnt = unlink 'a', 'b', 'c';
5218 Note: C<unlink> will not delete directories unless you are superuser and
5219 the B<-U> flag is supplied to Perl. Even if these conditions are
5220 met, be warned that unlinking a directory can inflict damage on your
5221 filesystem. Use C<rmdir> instead.
5223 If LIST is omitted, uses C<$_>.
5225 =item unpack TEMPLATE,EXPR
5227 C<unpack> does the reverse of C<pack>: it takes a string
5228 and expands it out into a list of values.
5229 (In scalar context, it returns merely the first value produced.)
5231 The string is broken into chunks described by the TEMPLATE. Each chunk
5232 is converted separately to a value. Typically, either the string is a result
5233 of C<pack>, or the bytes of the string represent a C structure of some
5236 The TEMPLATE has the same format as in the C<pack> function.
5237 Here's a subroutine that does substring:
5240 my($what,$where,$howmuch) = @_;
5241 unpack("x$where a$howmuch", $what);
5246 sub ordinal { unpack("c",$_[0]); } # same as ord()
5248 In addition to fields allowed in pack(), you may prefix a field with
5249 a %<number> to indicate that
5250 you want a <number>-bit checksum of the items instead of the items
5251 themselves. Default is a 16-bit checksum. Checksum is calculated by
5252 summing numeric values of expanded values (for string fields the sum of
5253 C<ord($char)> is taken, for bit fields the sum of zeroes and ones).
5255 For example, the following
5256 computes the same number as the System V sum program:
5260 unpack("%32C*",<>) % 65535;
5263 The following efficiently counts the number of set bits in a bit vector:
5265 $setbits = unpack("%32b*", $selectmask);
5267 The C<p> and C<P> formats should be used with care. Since Perl
5268 has no way of checking whether the value passed to C<unpack()>
5269 corresponds to a valid memory location, passing a pointer value that's
5270 not known to be valid is likely to have disastrous consequences.
5272 If the repeat count of a field is larger than what the remainder of
5273 the input string allows, repeat count is decreased. If the input string
5274 is longer than one described by the TEMPLATE, the rest is ignored.
5276 See L</pack> for more examples and notes.
5278 =item untie VARIABLE
5280 Breaks the binding between a variable and a package. (See C<tie>.)
5282 =item unshift ARRAY,LIST
5284 Does the opposite of a C<shift>. Or the opposite of a C<push>,
5285 depending on how you look at it. Prepends list to the front of the
5286 array, and returns the new number of elements in the array.
5288 unshift(ARGV, '-e') unless $ARGV[0] =~ /^-/;
5290 Note the LIST is prepended whole, not one element at a time, so the
5291 prepended elements stay in the same order. Use C<reverse> to do the
5294 =item use Module VERSION LIST
5296 =item use Module VERSION
5298 =item use Module LIST
5304 Imports some semantics into the current package from the named module,
5305 generally by aliasing certain subroutine or variable names into your
5306 package. It is exactly equivalent to
5308 BEGIN { require Module; import Module LIST; }
5310 except that Module I<must> be a bareword.
5312 VERSION, which can be specified as a literal of the form v5.6.1, demands
5313 that the current version of Perl (C<$^V> or $PERL_VERSION) be at least
5314 as recent as that version. (For compatibility with older versions of Perl,
5315 a numeric literal will also be interpreted as VERSION.) If the version
5316 of the running Perl interpreter is less than VERSION, then an error
5317 message is printed and Perl exits immediately without attempting to
5318 parse the rest of the file. Compare with L</require>, which can do a
5319 similar check at run time.
5321 use v5.6.1; # compile time version check
5323 use 5.005_03; # float version allowed for compatibility
5325 This is often useful if you need to check the current Perl version before
5326 C<use>ing library modules that have changed in incompatible ways from
5327 older versions of Perl. (We try not to do this more than we have to.)
5329 The C<BEGIN> forces the C<require> and C<import> to happen at compile time. The
5330 C<require> makes sure the module is loaded into memory if it hasn't been
5331 yet. The C<import> is not a builtin--it's just an ordinary static method
5332 call into the C<Module> package to tell the module to import the list of
5333 features back into the current package. The module can implement its
5334 C<import> method any way it likes, though most modules just choose to
5335 derive their C<import> method via inheritance from the C<Exporter> class that
5336 is defined in the C<Exporter> module. See L<Exporter>. If no C<import>
5337 method can be found then the call is skipped.
5339 If you don't want your namespace altered, explicitly supply an empty list:
5343 That is exactly equivalent to
5345 BEGIN { require Module }
5347 If the VERSION argument is present between Module and LIST, then the
5348 C<use> will call the VERSION method in class Module with the given
5349 version as an argument. The default VERSION method, inherited from
5350 the UNIVERSAL class, croaks if the given version is larger than the
5351 value of the variable C<$Module::VERSION>.
5353 Again, there is a distinction between omitting LIST (C<import> called
5354 with no arguments) and an explicit empty LIST C<()> (C<import> not
5355 called). Note that there is no comma after VERSION!
5357 Because this is a wide-open interface, pragmas (compiler directives)
5358 are also implemented this way. Currently implemented pragmas are:
5362 use sigtrap qw(SEGV BUS);
5363 use strict qw(subs vars refs);
5364 use subs qw(afunc blurfl);
5365 use warnings qw(all);
5367 Some of these pseudo-modules import semantics into the current
5368 block scope (like C<strict> or C<integer>, unlike ordinary modules,
5369 which import symbols into the current package (which are effective
5370 through the end of the file).
5372 There's a corresponding C<no> command that unimports meanings imported
5373 by C<use>, i.e., it calls C<unimport Module LIST> instead of C<import>.
5379 If no C<unimport> method can be found the call fails with a fatal error.
5381 See L<perlmod> for a list of standard modules and pragmas.
5385 Changes the access and modification times on each file of a list of
5386 files. The first two elements of the list must be the NUMERICAL access
5387 and modification times, in that order. Returns the number of files
5388 successfully changed. The inode change time of each file is set
5389 to the current time. This code has the same effect as the C<touch>
5390 command if the files already exist:
5394 utime $now, $now, @ARGV;
5398 Returns a list consisting of all the values of the named hash. (In a
5399 scalar context, returns the number of values.) The values are
5400 returned in an apparently random order. The actual random order is
5401 subject to change in future versions of perl, but it is guaranteed to
5402 be the same order as either the C<keys> or C<each> function would
5403 produce on the same (unmodified) hash.
5405 Note that you cannot modify the values of a hash this way, because the
5406 returned list is just a copy. You need to use a hash slice for that,
5407 since it's lvaluable in a way that values() is not.
5409 for (values %hash) { s/foo/bar/g } # FAILS!
5410 for (@hash{keys %hash}) { s/foo/bar/g } # ok
5412 As a side effect, calling values() resets the HASH's internal iterator.
5413 See also C<keys>, C<each>, and C<sort>.
5415 =item vec EXPR,OFFSET,BITS
5417 Treats the string in EXPR as a bit vector made up of elements of
5418 width BITS, and returns the value of the element specified by OFFSET
5419 as an unsigned integer. BITS therefore specifies the number of bits
5420 that are reserved for each element in the bit vector. This must
5421 be a power of two from 1 to 32 (or 64, if your platform supports
5424 If BITS is 8, "elements" coincide with bytes of the input string.
5426 If BITS is 16 or more, bytes of the input string are grouped into chunks
5427 of size BITS/8, and each group is converted to a number as with
5428 pack()/unpack() with big-endian formats C<n>/C<N> (and analoguously
5429 for BITS==64). See L<"pack"> for details.
5431 If bits is 4 or less, the string is broken into bytes, then the bits
5432 of each byte are broken into 8/BITS groups. Bits of a byte are
5433 numbered in a little-endian-ish way, as in C<0x01>, C<0x02>,
5434 C<0x04>, C<0x08>, C<0x10>, C<0x20>, C<0x40>, C<0x80>. For example,
5435 breaking the single input byte C<chr(0x36)> into two groups gives a list
5436 C<(0x6, 0x3)>; breaking it into 4 groups gives C<(0x2, 0x1, 0x3, 0x0)>.
5438 C<vec> may also be assigned to, in which case parentheses are needed
5439 to give the expression the correct precedence as in
5441 vec($image, $max_x * $x + $y, 8) = 3;
5443 If the selected element is off the end of the string, the value 0 is
5444 returned. If an element off the end of the string is written to,
5445 Perl will first extend the string with sufficiently many zero bytes.
5447 Strings created with C<vec> can also be manipulated with the logical
5448 operators C<|>, C<&>, C<^>, and C<~>. These operators will assume a bit
5449 vector operation is desired when both operands are strings.
5450 See L<perlop/"Bitwise String Operators">.
5452 The following code will build up an ASCII string saying C<'PerlPerlPerl'>.
5453 The comments show the string after each step. Note that this code works
5454 in the same way on big-endian or little-endian machines.
5457 vec($foo, 0, 32) = 0x5065726C; # 'Perl'
5459 # $foo eq "Perl" eq "\x50\x65\x72\x6C", 32 bits
5460 print vec($foo, 0, 8); # prints 80 == 0x50 == ord('P')
5462 vec($foo, 2, 16) = 0x5065; # 'PerlPe'
5463 vec($foo, 3, 16) = 0x726C; # 'PerlPerl'
5464 vec($foo, 8, 8) = 0x50; # 'PerlPerlP'
5465 vec($foo, 9, 8) = 0x65; # 'PerlPerlPe'
5466 vec($foo, 20, 4) = 2; # 'PerlPerlPe' . "\x02"
5467 vec($foo, 21, 4) = 7; # 'PerlPerlPer'
5469 vec($foo, 45, 2) = 3; # 'PerlPerlPer' . "\x0c"
5470 vec($foo, 93, 1) = 1; # 'PerlPerlPer' . "\x2c"
5471 vec($foo, 94, 1) = 1; # 'PerlPerlPerl'
5474 To transform a bit vector into a string or list of 0's and 1's, use these:
5476 $bits = unpack("b*", $vector);
5477 @bits = split(//, unpack("b*", $vector));
5479 If you know the exact length in bits, it can be used in place of the C<*>.
5481 Here is an example to illustrate how the bits actually fall in place:
5487 unpack("V",$_) 01234567890123456789012345678901
5488 ------------------------------------------------------------------
5493 for ($shift=0; $shift < $width; ++$shift) {
5494 for ($off=0; $off < 32/$width; ++$off) {
5495 $str = pack("B*", "0"x32);
5496 $bits = (1<<$shift);
5497 vec($str, $off, $width) = $bits;
5498 $res = unpack("b*",$str);
5499 $val = unpack("V", $str);
5506 vec($_,@#,@#) = @<< == @######### @>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
5507 $off, $width, $bits, $val, $res
5511 Regardless of the machine architecture on which it is run, the above
5512 example should print the following table:
5515 unpack("V",$_) 01234567890123456789012345678901
5516 ------------------------------------------------------------------
5517 vec($_, 0, 1) = 1 == 1 10000000000000000000000000000000
5518 vec($_, 1, 1) = 1 == 2 01000000000000000000000000000000
5519 vec($_, 2, 1) = 1 == 4 00100000000000000000000000000000
5520 vec($_, 3, 1) = 1 == 8 00010000000000000000000000000000
5521 vec($_, 4, 1) = 1 == 16 00001000000000000000000000000000
5522 vec($_, 5, 1) = 1 == 32 00000100000000000000000000000000
5523 vec($_, 6, 1) = 1 == 64 00000010000000000000000000000000
5524 vec($_, 7, 1) = 1 == 128 00000001000000000000000000000000
5525 vec($_, 8, 1) = 1 == 256 00000000100000000000000000000000
5526 vec($_, 9, 1) = 1 == 512 00000000010000000000000000000000
5527 vec($_,10, 1) = 1 == 1024 00000000001000000000000000000000
5528 vec($_,11, 1) = 1 == 2048 00000000000100000000000000000000
5529 vec($_,12, 1) = 1 == 4096 00000000000010000000000000000000
5530 vec($_,13, 1) = 1 == 8192 00000000000001000000000000000000
5531 vec($_,14, 1) = 1 == 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000
5532 vec($_,15, 1) = 1 == 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000
5533 vec($_,16, 1) = 1 == 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000
5534 vec($_,17, 1) = 1 == 131072 00000000000000000100000000000000
5535 vec($_,18, 1) = 1 == 262144 00000000000000000010000000000000
5536 vec($_,19, 1) = 1 == 524288 00000000000000000001000000000000
5537 vec($_,20, 1) = 1 == 1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000
5538 vec($_,21, 1) = 1 == 2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000
5539 vec($_,22, 1) = 1 == 4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000
5540 vec($_,23, 1) = 1 == 8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000
5541 vec($_,24, 1) = 1 == 16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000
5542 vec($_,25, 1) = 1 == 33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000
5543 vec($_,26, 1) = 1 == 67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000
5544 vec($_,27, 1) = 1 == 134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000
5545 vec($_,28, 1) = 1 == 268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000
5546 vec($_,29, 1) = 1 == 536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100
5547 vec($_,30, 1) = 1 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010
5548 vec($_,31, 1) = 1 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001
5549 vec($_, 0, 2) = 1 == 1 10000000000000000000000000000000
5550 vec($_, 1, 2) = 1 == 4 00100000000000000000000000000000
5551 vec($_, 2, 2) = 1 == 16 00001000000000000000000000000000
5552 vec($_, 3, 2) = 1 == 64 00000010000000000000000000000000
5553 vec($_, 4, 2) = 1 == 256 00000000100000000000000000000000
5554 vec($_, 5, 2) = 1 == 1024 00000000001000000000000000000000
5555 vec($_, 6, 2) = 1 == 4096 00000000000010000000000000000000
5556 vec($_, 7, 2) = 1 == 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000
5557 vec($_, 8, 2) = 1 == 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000
5558 vec($_, 9, 2) = 1 == 262144 00000000000000000010000000000000
5559 vec($_,10, 2) = 1 == 1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000
5560 vec($_,11, 2) = 1 == 4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000
5561 vec($_,12, 2) = 1 == 16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000
5562 vec($_,13, 2) = 1 == 67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000
5563 vec($_,14, 2) = 1 == 268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000
5564 vec($_,15, 2) = 1 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010
5565 vec($_, 0, 2) = 2 == 2 01000000000000000000000000000000
5566 vec($_, 1, 2) = 2 == 8 00010000000000000000000000000000
5567 vec($_, 2, 2) = 2 == 32 00000100000000000000000000000000
5568 vec($_, 3, 2) = 2 == 128 00000001000000000000000000000000
5569 vec($_, 4, 2) = 2 == 512 00000000010000000000000000000000
5570 vec($_, 5, 2) = 2 == 2048 00000000000100000000000000000000
5571 vec($_, 6, 2) = 2 == 8192 00000000000001000000000000000000
5572 vec($_, 7, 2) = 2 == 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000
5573 vec($_, 8, 2) = 2 == 131072 00000000000000000100000000000000
5574 vec($_, 9, 2) = 2 == 524288 00000000000000000001000000000000
5575 vec($_,10, 2) = 2 == 2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000
5576 vec($_,11, 2) = 2 == 8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000
5577 vec($_,12, 2) = 2 == 33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000
5578 vec($_,13, 2) = 2 == 134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000
5579 vec($_,14, 2) = 2 == 536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100
5580 vec($_,15, 2) = 2 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001
5581 vec($_, 0, 4) = 1 == 1 10000000000000000000000000000000
5582 vec($_, 1, 4) = 1 == 16 00001000000000000000000000000000
5583 vec($_, 2, 4) = 1 == 256 00000000100000000000000000000000
5584 vec($_, 3, 4) = 1 == 4096 00000000000010000000000000000000
5585 vec($_, 4, 4) = 1 == 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000
5586 vec($_, 5, 4) = 1 == 1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000
5587 vec($_, 6, 4) = 1 == 16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000
5588 vec($_, 7, 4) = 1 == 268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000
5589 vec($_, 0, 4) = 2 == 2 01000000000000000000000000000000
5590 vec($_, 1, 4) = 2 == 32 00000100000000000000000000000000
5591 vec($_, 2, 4) = 2 == 512 00000000010000000000000000000000
5592 vec($_, 3, 4) = 2 == 8192 00000000000001000000000000000000
5593 vec($_, 4, 4) = 2 == 131072 00000000000000000100000000000000
5594 vec($_, 5, 4) = 2 == 2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000
5595 vec($_, 6, 4) = 2 == 33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000
5596 vec($_, 7, 4) = 2 == 536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100
5597 vec($_, 0, 4) = 4 == 4 00100000000000000000000000000000
5598 vec($_, 1, 4) = 4 == 64 00000010000000000000000000000000
5599 vec($_, 2, 4) = 4 == 1024 00000000001000000000000000000000
5600 vec($_, 3, 4) = 4 == 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000
5601 vec($_, 4, 4) = 4 == 262144 00000000000000000010000000000000
5602 vec($_, 5, 4) = 4 == 4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000
5603 vec($_, 6, 4) = 4 == 67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000
5604 vec($_, 7, 4) = 4 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010
5605 vec($_, 0, 4) = 8 == 8 00010000000000000000000000000000
5606 vec($_, 1, 4) = 8 == 128 00000001000000000000000000000000
5607 vec($_, 2, 4) = 8 == 2048 00000000000100000000000000000000
5608 vec($_, 3, 4) = 8 == 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000
5609 vec($_, 4, 4) = 8 == 524288 00000000000000000001000000000000
5610 vec($_, 5, 4) = 8 == 8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000
5611 vec($_, 6, 4) = 8 == 134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000
5612 vec($_, 7, 4) = 8 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001
5613 vec($_, 0, 8) = 1 == 1 10000000000000000000000000000000
5614 vec($_, 1, 8) = 1 == 256 00000000100000000000000000000000
5615 vec($_, 2, 8) = 1 == 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000
5616 vec($_, 3, 8) = 1 == 16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000
5617 vec($_, 0, 8) = 2 == 2 01000000000000000000000000000000
5618 vec($_, 1, 8) = 2 == 512 00000000010000000000000000000000
5619 vec($_, 2, 8) = 2 == 131072 00000000000000000100000000000000
5620 vec($_, 3, 8) = 2 == 33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000
5621 vec($_, 0, 8) = 4 == 4 00100000000000000000000000000000
5622 vec($_, 1, 8) = 4 == 1024 00000000001000000000000000000000
5623 vec($_, 2, 8) = 4 == 262144 00000000000000000010000000000000
5624 vec($_, 3, 8) = 4 == 67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000
5625 vec($_, 0, 8) = 8 == 8 00010000000000000000000000000000
5626 vec($_, 1, 8) = 8 == 2048 00000000000100000000000000000000
5627 vec($_, 2, 8) = 8 == 524288 00000000000000000001000000000000
5628 vec($_, 3, 8) = 8 == 134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000
5629 vec($_, 0, 8) = 16 == 16 00001000000000000000000000000000
5630 vec($_, 1, 8) = 16 == 4096 00000000000010000000000000000000
5631 vec($_, 2, 8) = 16 == 1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000
5632 vec($_, 3, 8) = 16 == 268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000
5633 vec($_, 0, 8) = 32 == 32 00000100000000000000000000000000
5634 vec($_, 1, 8) = 32 == 8192 00000000000001000000000000000000
5635 vec($_, 2, 8) = 32 == 2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000
5636 vec($_, 3, 8) = 32 == 536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100
5637 vec($_, 0, 8) = 64 == 64 00000010000000000000000000000000
5638 vec($_, 1, 8) = 64 == 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000
5639 vec($_, 2, 8) = 64 == 4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000
5640 vec($_, 3, 8) = 64 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010
5641 vec($_, 0, 8) = 128 == 128 00000001000000000000000000000000
5642 vec($_, 1, 8) = 128 == 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000
5643 vec($_, 2, 8) = 128 == 8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000
5644 vec($_, 3, 8) = 128 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001
5648 Behaves like the wait(2) system call on your system: it waits for a child
5649 process to terminate and returns the pid of the deceased process, or
5650 C<-1> if there are no child processes. The status is returned in C<$?>.
5651 Note that a return value of C<-1> could mean that child processes are
5652 being automatically reaped, as described in L<perlipc>.
5654 =item waitpid PID,FLAGS
5656 Waits for a particular child process to terminate and returns the pid of
5657 the deceased process, or C<-1> if there is no such child process. On some
5658 systems, a value of 0 indicates that there are processes still running.
5659 The status is returned in C<$?>. If you say
5661 use POSIX ":sys_wait_h";
5664 $kid = waitpid(-1,&WNOHANG);
5667 then you can do a non-blocking wait for all pending zombie processes.
5668 Non-blocking wait is available on machines supporting either the
5669 waitpid(2) or wait4(2) system calls. However, waiting for a particular
5670 pid with FLAGS of C<0> is implemented everywhere. (Perl emulates the
5671 system call by remembering the status values of processes that have
5672 exited but have not been harvested by the Perl script yet.)
5674 Note that on some systems, a return value of C<-1> could mean that child
5675 processes are being automatically reaped. See L<perlipc> for details,
5676 and for other examples.
5680 Returns true if the context of the currently executing subroutine is
5681 looking for a list value. Returns false if the context is looking
5682 for a scalar. Returns the undefined value if the context is looking
5683 for no value (void context).
5685 return unless defined wantarray; # don't bother doing more
5686 my @a = complex_calculation();
5687 return wantarray ? @a : "@a";
5689 This function should have been named wantlist() instead.
5693 Produces a message on STDERR just like C<die>, but doesn't exit or throw
5696 If LIST is empty and C<$@> already contains a value (typically from a
5697 previous eval) that value is used after appending C<"\t...caught">
5698 to C<$@>. This is useful for staying almost, but not entirely similar to
5701 If C<$@> is empty then the string C<"Warning: Something's wrong"> is used.
5703 No message is printed if there is a C<$SIG{__WARN__}> handler
5704 installed. It is the handler's responsibility to deal with the message
5705 as it sees fit (like, for instance, converting it into a C<die>). Most
5706 handlers must therefore make arrangements to actually display the
5707 warnings that they are not prepared to deal with, by calling C<warn>
5708 again in the handler. Note that this is quite safe and will not
5709 produce an endless loop, since C<__WARN__> hooks are not called from
5712 You will find this behavior is slightly different from that of
5713 C<$SIG{__DIE__}> handlers (which don't suppress the error text, but can
5714 instead call C<die> again to change it).
5716 Using a C<__WARN__> handler provides a powerful way to silence all
5717 warnings (even the so-called mandatory ones). An example:
5719 # wipe out *all* compile-time warnings
5720 BEGIN { $SIG{'__WARN__'} = sub { warn $_[0] if $DOWARN } }
5722 my $foo = 20; # no warning about duplicate my $foo,
5723 # but hey, you asked for it!
5724 # no compile-time or run-time warnings before here
5727 # run-time warnings enabled after here
5728 warn "\$foo is alive and $foo!"; # does show up
5730 See L<perlvar> for details on setting C<%SIG> entries, and for more
5731 examples. See the Carp module for other kinds of warnings using its
5732 carp() and cluck() functions.
5734 =item write FILEHANDLE
5740 Writes a formatted record (possibly multi-line) to the specified FILEHANDLE,
5741 using the format associated with that file. By default the format for
5742 a file is the one having the same name as the filehandle, but the
5743 format for the current output channel (see the C<select> function) may be set
5744 explicitly by assigning the name of the format to the C<$~> variable.
5746 Top of form processing is handled automatically: if there is
5747 insufficient room on the current page for the formatted record, the
5748 page is advanced by writing a form feed, a special top-of-page format
5749 is used to format the new page header, and then the record is written.
5750 By default the top-of-page format is the name of the filehandle with
5751 "_TOP" appended, but it may be dynamically set to the format of your
5752 choice by assigning the name to the C<$^> variable while the filehandle is
5753 selected. The number of lines remaining on the current page is in
5754 variable C<$->, which can be set to C<0> to force a new page.
5756 If FILEHANDLE is unspecified, output goes to the current default output
5757 channel, which starts out as STDOUT but may be changed by the
5758 C<select> operator. If the FILEHANDLE is an EXPR, then the expression
5759 is evaluated and the resulting string is used to look up the name of
5760 the FILEHANDLE at run time. For more on formats, see L<perlform>.
5762 Note that write is I<not> the opposite of C<read>. Unfortunately.
5766 The transliteration operator. Same as C<tr///>. See L<perlop>.