3 perlfunc - Perl builtin functions
7 The functions in this section can serve as terms in an expression.
8 They fall into two major categories: list operators and named unary
9 operators. These differ in their precedence relationship with a
10 following comma. (See the precedence table in L<perlop>.) List
11 operators take more than one argument, while unary operators can never
12 take more than one argument. Thus, a comma terminates the argument of
13 a unary operator, but merely separates the arguments of a list
14 operator. A unary operator generally provides a scalar context to its
15 argument, while a list operator may provide either scalar and list
16 contexts for its arguments. If it does both, the scalar arguments will
17 be first, and the list argument will follow. (Note that there can ever
18 be only one list argument.) For instance, splice() has three scalar
19 arguments followed by a list.
21 In the syntax descriptions that follow, list operators that expect a
22 list (and provide list context for the elements of the list) are shown
23 with LIST as an argument. Such a list may consist of any combination
24 of scalar arguments or list values; the list values will be included
25 in the list as if each individual element were interpolated at that
26 point in the list, forming a longer single-dimensional list value.
27 Elements of the LIST should be separated by commas.
29 Any function in the list below may be used either with or without
30 parentheses around its arguments. (The syntax descriptions omit the
31 parentheses.) If you use the parentheses, the simple (but occasionally
32 surprising) rule is this: It I<LOOKS> like a function, therefore it I<IS> a
33 function, and precedence doesn't matter. Otherwise it's a list
34 operator or unary operator, and precedence does matter. And whitespace
35 between the function and left parenthesis doesn't count--so you need to
38 print 1+2+4; # Prints 7.
39 print(1+2) + 4; # Prints 3.
40 print (1+2)+4; # Also prints 3!
41 print +(1+2)+4; # Prints 7.
42 print ((1+2)+4); # Prints 7.
44 If you run Perl with the B<-w> switch it can warn you about this. For
45 example, the third line above produces:
47 print (...) interpreted as function at - line 1.
48 Useless use of integer addition in void context at - line 1.
50 For functions that can be used in either a scalar or list context,
51 nonabortive failure is generally indicated in a scalar context by
52 returning the undefined value, and in a list context by returning the
55 Remember the following rule:
59 =item I<THERE IS NO GENERAL RULE FOR CONVERTING A LIST INTO A SCALAR!>
63 Each operator and function decides which sort of value it would be most
64 appropriate to return in a scalar context. Some operators return the
65 length of the list that would have been returned in a list context. Some
66 operators return the first value in the list. Some operators return the
67 last value in the list. Some operators return a count of successful
68 operations. In general, they do what you want, unless you want
71 =head2 Perl Functions by Category
73 Here are Perl's functions (including things that look like
74 functions, like some of the keywords and named operators)
75 arranged by category. Some functions appear in more
80 =item Functions for SCALARs or strings
82 chomp, chop, chr, crypt, hex, index, lc, lcfirst, length,
83 oct, ord, pack, q/STRING/, qq/STRING/, reverse, rindex,
84 sprintf, substr, tr///, uc, ucfirst, y///
86 =item Regular expressions and pattern matching
88 m//, pos, quotemeta, s///, split, study
90 =item Numeric functions
92 abs, atan2, cos, exp, hex, int, log, oct, rand, sin, sqrt,
95 =item Functions for real @ARRAYs
97 pop, push, shift, splice, unshift
99 =item Functions for list data
101 grep, join, map, qw/STRING/, reverse, sort, unpack
103 =item Functions for real %HASHes
105 delete, each, exists, keys, values
107 =item Input and output functions
109 binmode, close, closedir, dbmclose, dbmopen, die, eof,
110 fileno, flock, format, getc, print, printf, read, readdir,
111 rewinddir, seek, seekdir, select, syscall, sysread, sysseek,
112 syswrite, tell, telldir, truncate, warn, write
114 =item Functions for fixed length data or records
116 pack, read, syscall, sysread, syswrite, unpack, vec
118 =item Functions for filehandles, files, or directories
120 I<-X>, chdir, chmod, chown, chroot, fcntl, glob, ioctl, link,
121 lstat, mkdir, open, opendir, readlink, rename, rmdir,
122 stat, symlink, umask, unlink, utime
124 =item Keywords related to the control flow of your perl program
126 caller, continue, die, do, dump, eval, exit, goto, last,
127 next, redo, return, sub, wantarray
129 =item Keywords related to scoping
131 caller, import, local, my, package, use
133 =item Miscellaneous functions
135 defined, dump, eval, formline, local, my, reset, scalar,
138 =item Functions for processes and process groups
140 alarm, exec, fork, getpgrp, getppid, getpriority, kill,
141 pipe, qx/STRING/, setpgrp, setpriority, sleep, system,
144 =item Keywords related to perl modules
146 do, import, no, package, require, use
148 =item Keywords related to classes and object-orientedness
150 bless, dbmclose, dbmopen, package, ref, tie, tied, untie, use
152 =item Low-level socket functions
154 accept, bind, connect, getpeername, getsockname,
155 getsockopt, listen, recv, send, setsockopt, shutdown,
158 =item System V interprocess communication functions
160 msgctl, msgget, msgrcv, msgsnd, semctl, semget, semop,
161 shmctl, shmget, shmread, shmwrite
163 =item Fetching user and group info
165 endgrent, endhostent, endnetent, endpwent, getgrent,
166 getgrgid, getgrnam, getlogin, getpwent, getpwnam,
167 getpwuid, setgrent, setpwent
169 =item Fetching network info
171 endprotoent, endservent, gethostbyaddr, gethostbyname,
172 gethostent, getnetbyaddr, getnetbyname, getnetent,
173 getprotobyname, getprotobynumber, getprotoent,
174 getservbyname, getservbyport, getservent, sethostent,
175 setnetent, setprotoent, setservent
177 =item Time-related functions
179 gmtime, localtime, time, times
181 =item Functions new in perl5
183 abs, bless, chomp, chr, exists, formline, glob, import, lc,
184 lcfirst, map, my, no, prototype, qx, qw, readline, readpipe,
185 ref, sub*, sysopen, tie, tied, uc, ucfirst, untie, use
187 * - C<sub> was a keyword in perl4, but in perl5 it is an
188 operator which can be used in expressions.
190 =item Functions obsoleted in perl5
196 =head2 Alphabetical Listing of Perl Functions
206 A file test, where X is one of the letters listed below. This unary
207 operator takes one argument, either a filename or a filehandle, and
208 tests the associated file to see if something is true about it. If the
209 argument is omitted, tests $_, except for C<-t>, which tests STDIN.
210 Unless otherwise documented, it returns C<1> for TRUE and C<''> for FALSE, or
211 the undefined value if the file doesn't exist. Despite the funny
212 names, precedence is the same as any other named unary operator, and
213 the argument may be parenthesized like any other unary operator. The
214 operator may be any of:
216 -r File is readable by effective uid/gid.
217 -w File is writable by effective uid/gid.
218 -x File is executable by effective uid/gid.
219 -o File is owned by effective uid.
221 -R File is readable by real uid/gid.
222 -W File is writable by real uid/gid.
223 -X File is executable by real uid/gid.
224 -O File is owned by real uid.
227 -z File has zero size.
228 -s File has nonzero size (returns size).
230 -f File is a plain file.
231 -d File is a directory.
232 -l File is a symbolic link.
233 -p File is a named pipe (FIFO).
235 -b File is a block special file.
236 -c File is a character special file.
237 -t Filehandle is opened to a tty.
239 -u File has setuid bit set.
240 -g File has setgid bit set.
241 -k File has sticky bit set.
243 -T File is a text file.
244 -B File is a binary file (opposite of -T).
246 -M Age of file in days when script started.
247 -A Same for access time.
248 -C Same for inode change time.
250 The interpretation of the file permission operators C<-r>, C<-R>, C<-w>,
251 C<-W>, C<-x>, and C<-X> is based solely on the mode of the file and the
252 uids and gids of the user. There may be other reasons you can't actually
253 read, write or execute the file. Also note that, for the superuser,
254 C<-r>, C<-R>, C<-w>, and C<-W> always return 1, and C<-x> and C<-X> return
255 1 if any execute bit is set in the mode. Scripts run by the superuser may
256 thus need to do a stat() to determine the actual mode of the
257 file, or temporarily set the uid to something else.
263 next unless -f $_; # ignore specials
267 Note that C<-s/a/b/> does not do a negated substitution. Saying
268 C<-exp($foo)> still works as expected, however--only single letters
269 following a minus are interpreted as file tests.
271 The C<-T> and C<-B> switches work as follows. The first block or so of the
272 file is examined for odd characters such as strange control codes or
273 characters with the high bit set. If too many odd characters (E<gt>30%)
274 are found, it's a C<-B> file, otherwise it's a C<-T> file. Also, any file
275 containing null in the first block is considered a binary file. If C<-T>
276 or C<-B> is used on a filehandle, the current stdio buffer is examined
277 rather than the first block. Both C<-T> and C<-B> return TRUE on a null
278 file, or a file at EOF when testing a filehandle. Because you have to
279 read a file to do the C<-T> test, on most occasions you want to use a C<-f>
280 against the file first, as in C<next unless -f $file && -T $file>.
282 If any of the file tests (or either the stat() or lstat() operators) are given
283 the special filehandle consisting of a solitary underline, then the stat
284 structure of the previous file test (or stat operator) is used, saving
285 a system call. (This doesn't work with C<-t>, and you need to remember
286 that lstat() and C<-l> will leave values in the stat structure for the
287 symbolic link, not the real file.) Example:
289 print "Can do.\n" if -r $a || -w _ || -x _;
292 print "Readable\n" if -r _;
293 print "Writable\n" if -w _;
294 print "Executable\n" if -x _;
295 print "Setuid\n" if -u _;
296 print "Setgid\n" if -g _;
297 print "Sticky\n" if -k _;
298 print "Text\n" if -T _;
299 print "Binary\n" if -B _;
305 Returns the absolute value of its argument.
306 If VALUE is omitted, uses $_.
308 =item accept NEWSOCKET,GENERICSOCKET
310 Accepts an incoming socket connect, just as the accept(2) system call
311 does. Returns the packed address if it succeeded, FALSE otherwise.
312 See example in L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">.
318 Arranges to have a SIGALRM delivered to this process after the
319 specified number of seconds have elapsed. If SECONDS is not specified,
320 the value stored in $_ is used. (On some machines,
321 unfortunately, the elapsed time may be up to one second less than you
322 specified because of how seconds are counted.) Only one timer may be
323 counting at once. Each call disables the previous timer, and an
324 argument of 0 may be supplied to cancel the previous timer without
325 starting a new one. The returned value is the amount of time remaining
326 on the previous timer.
328 For delays of finer granularity than one second, you may use Perl's
329 syscall() interface to access setitimer(2) if your system supports it,
330 or else see L</select()>. It is usually a mistake to intermix alarm()
333 If you want to use alarm() to time out a system call you need to use an
334 eval/die pair. You can't rely on the alarm causing the system call to
335 fail with $! set to EINTR because Perl sets up signal handlers to
336 restart system calls on some systems. Using eval/die always works.
339 local $SIG{ALRM} = sub { die "alarm\n" }; # NB \n required
341 $nread = sysread SOCKET, $buffer, $size;
344 die if $@ && $@ ne "alarm\n"; # propagate errors
354 Returns the arctangent of Y/X in the range -PI to PI.
356 For the tangent operation, you may use the POSIX::tan()
357 function, or use the familiar relation:
359 sub tan { sin($_[0]) / cos($_[0]) }
361 =item bind SOCKET,NAME
363 Binds a network address to a socket, just as the bind system call
364 does. Returns TRUE if it succeeded, FALSE otherwise. NAME should be a
365 packed address of the appropriate type for the socket. See the examples in
366 L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">.
368 =item binmode FILEHANDLE
370 Arranges for the file to be read or written in "binary" mode in operating
371 systems that distinguish between binary and text files. Files that are
372 not in binary mode have CR LF sequences translated to LF on input and LF
373 translated to CR LF on output. Binmode has no effect under Unix; in MS-DOS
374 and similarly archaic systems, it may be imperative--otherwise your
375 MS-DOS-damaged C library may mangle your file. The key distinction between
376 systems that need binmode and those that don't is their text file
377 formats. Systems like Unix and Plan9 that delimit lines with a single
378 character, and that encode that character in C as '\n', do not need
379 C<binmode>. The rest need it. If FILEHANDLE is an expression, the value
380 is taken as the name of the filehandle.
382 =item bless REF,CLASSNAME
386 This function tells the thingy referenced by REF that it is now
387 an object in the CLASSNAME package--or the current package if no CLASSNAME
388 is specified, which is often the case. It returns the reference for
389 convenience, because a bless() is often the last thing in a constructor.
390 Always use the two-argument version if the function doing the blessing
391 might be inherited by a derived class. See L<perlobj> for more about the
392 blessing (and blessings) of objects.
398 Returns the context of the current subroutine call. In a scalar context,
399 returns the caller's package name if there is a caller, that is, if
400 we're in a subroutine or eval() or require(), and the undefined value
401 otherwise. In a list context, returns
403 ($package, $filename, $line) = caller;
405 With EXPR, it returns some extra information that the debugger uses to
406 print a stack trace. The value of EXPR indicates how many call frames
407 to go back before the current one.
409 ($package, $filename, $line, $subroutine,
410 $hasargs, $wantarray, $evaltext, $is_require) = caller($i);
412 Here $subroutine may be C<"(eval)"> if the frame is not a subroutine
413 call, but an C<eval>. In such a case additional elements $evaltext and
414 $is_require are set: $is_require is true if the frame is created by a
415 C<require> or C<use> statement, $evaltext contains the text of the
416 C<eval EXPR> statement. In particular, for a C<eval BLOCK> statement,
417 $filename is C<"(eval)">, but $evaltext is undefined. (Note also that
418 each C<use> statement creates a C<require> frame inside an C<eval EXPR>)
421 Furthermore, when called from within the DB package, caller returns more
422 detailed information: it sets the list variable @DB::args to be the
423 arguments with which the subroutine was invoked.
427 Changes the working directory to EXPR, if possible. If EXPR is
428 omitted, changes to home directory. Returns TRUE upon success, FALSE
429 otherwise. See example under die().
433 Changes the permissions of a list of files. The first element of the
434 list must be the numerical mode, which should probably be an octal
435 number, and which definitely should I<not> a string of octal digits:
436 C<0644> is okay, C<'0644'> is not. Returns the number of files
437 successfully changed. See also L</oct>, if all you have is a string.
439 $cnt = chmod 0755, 'foo', 'bar';
440 chmod 0755, @executables;
441 $mode = '0644'; chmod $mode, 'foo'; # !!! sets mode to --w----r-T
442 $mode = '0644'; chmod oct($mode), 'foo'; # this is better
443 $mode = 0644; chmod $mode, 'foo'; # this is best
451 This is a slightly safer version of L</chop>. It removes any
452 line ending that corresponds to the current value of C<$/> (also known as
453 $INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR in the C<English> module). It returns the total
454 number of characters removed from all its arguments. It's often used to
455 remove the newline from the end of an input record when you're worried
456 that the final record may be missing its newline. When in paragraph mode
457 (C<$/ = "">), it removes all trailing newlines from the string. If
458 VARIABLE is omitted, it chomps $_. Example:
461 chomp; # avoid \n on last field
466 You can actually chomp anything that's an lvalue, including an assignment:
469 chomp($answer = <STDIN>);
471 If you chomp a list, each element is chomped, and the total number of
472 characters removed is returned.
480 Chops off the last character of a string and returns the character
481 chopped. It's used primarily to remove the newline from the end of an
482 input record, but is much more efficient than C<s/\n//> because it neither
483 scans nor copies the string. If VARIABLE is omitted, chops $_.
487 chop; # avoid \n on last field
492 You can actually chop anything that's an lvalue, including an assignment:
495 chop($answer = <STDIN>);
497 If you chop a list, each element is chopped. Only the value of the
498 last chop is returned.
500 Note that chop returns the last character. To return all but the last
501 character, use C<substr($string, 0, -1)>.
505 Changes the owner (and group) of a list of files. The first two
506 elements of the list must be the I<NUMERICAL> uid and gid, in that order.
507 Returns the number of files successfully changed.
509 $cnt = chown $uid, $gid, 'foo', 'bar';
510 chown $uid, $gid, @filenames;
512 Here's an example that looks up nonnumeric uids in the passwd file:
515 chop($user = <STDIN>);
517 chop($pattern = <STDIN>);
519 ($login,$pass,$uid,$gid) = getpwnam($user)
520 or die "$user not in passwd file";
522 @ary = <${pattern}>; # expand filenames
523 chown $uid, $gid, @ary;
525 On most systems, you are not allowed to change the ownership of the
526 file unless you're the superuser, although you should be able to change
527 the group to any of your secondary groups. On insecure systems, these
528 restrictions may be relaxed, but this is not a portable assumption.
534 Returns the character represented by that NUMBER in the character set.
535 For example, C<chr(65)> is "A" in ASCII. For the reverse, use L</ord>.
537 If NUMBER is omitted, uses $_.
539 =item chroot FILENAME
543 This function works as the system call by the same name: it makes the
544 named directory the new root directory for all further pathnames that
545 begin with a "/" by your process and all of its children. (It doesn't
546 change your current working directory, which is unaffected.) For security
547 reasons, this call is restricted to the superuser. If FILENAME is
548 omitted, does chroot to $_.
550 =item close FILEHANDLE
552 Closes the file or pipe associated with the file handle, returning TRUE
553 only if stdio successfully flushes buffers and closes the system file
556 You don't have to close FILEHANDLE if you are immediately going to do
557 another open() on it, because open() will close it for you. (See
558 open().) However, an explicit close on an input file resets the line
559 counter ($.), while the implicit close done by open() does not.
561 If the file handle came from a piped open C<close> will additionally
562 return FALSE if one of the other system calls involved fails or if the
563 program exits with non-zero status. (If the only problem was that the
564 program exited non-zero $! will be set to 0.) Also, closing a pipe will
565 wait for the process executing on the pipe to complete, in case you
566 want to look at the output of the pipe afterwards. Closing a pipe
567 explicitly also puts the exit status value of the command into C<$?>.
570 open(OUTPUT, '|sort >foo') # pipe to sort
571 or die "Can't start sort: $!";
572 ... # print stuff to output
573 close OUTPUT # wait for sort to finish
574 or warn $! ? "Error closing sort pipe: $!"
575 : "Exit status $? from sort";
576 open(INPUT, 'foo') # get sort's results
577 or die "Can't open 'foo' for input: $!";
579 FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the real filehandle name.
581 =item closedir DIRHANDLE
583 Closes a directory opened by opendir().
585 =item connect SOCKET,NAME
587 Attempts to connect to a remote socket, just as the connect system call
588 does. Returns TRUE if it succeeded, FALSE otherwise. NAME should be a
589 packed address of the appropriate type for the socket. See the examples in
590 L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">.
594 Actually a flow control statement rather than a function. If there is a
595 C<continue> BLOCK attached to a BLOCK (typically in a C<while> or
596 C<foreach>), it is always executed just before the conditional is about to
597 be evaluated again, just like the third part of a C<for> loop in C. Thus
598 it can be used to increment a loop variable, even when the loop has been
599 continued via the C<next> statement (which is similar to the C C<continue>
604 Returns the cosine of EXPR (expressed in radians). If EXPR is omitted
607 For the inverse cosine operation, you may use the POSIX::acos()
608 function, or use this relation:
610 sub acos { atan2( sqrt(1 - $_[0] * $_[0]), $_[0] ) }
612 =item crypt PLAINTEXT,SALT
614 Encrypts a string exactly like the crypt(3) function in the C library
615 (assuming that you actually have a version there that has not been
616 extirpated as a potential munition). This can prove useful for checking
617 the password file for lousy passwords, amongst other things. Only the
618 guys wearing white hats should do this.
620 Note that crypt is intended to be a one-way function, much like breaking
621 eggs to make an omelette. There is no (known) corresponding decrypt
622 function. As a result, this function isn't all that useful for
623 cryptography. (For that, see your nearby CPAN mirror.)
625 Here's an example that makes sure that whoever runs this program knows
628 $pwd = (getpwuid($<))[1];
629 $salt = substr($pwd, 0, 2);
633 chop($word = <STDIN>);
637 if (crypt($word, $salt) ne $pwd) {
643 Of course, typing in your own password to whoever asks you
648 [This function has been superseded by the untie() function.]
650 Breaks the binding between a DBM file and a hash.
652 =item dbmopen HASH,DBNAME,MODE
654 [This function has been superseded by the tie() function.]
656 This binds a dbm(3), ndbm(3), sdbm(3), gdbm(), or Berkeley DB file to a
657 hash. HASH is the name of the hash. (Unlike normal open, the first
658 argument is I<NOT> a filehandle, even though it looks like one). DBNAME
659 is the name of the database (without the F<.dir> or F<.pag> extension if
660 any). If the database does not exist, it is created with protection
661 specified by MODE (as modified by the umask()). If your system supports
662 only the older DBM functions, you may perform only one dbmopen() in your
663 program. In older versions of Perl, if your system had neither DBM nor
664 ndbm, calling dbmopen() produced a fatal error; it now falls back to
667 If you don't have write access to the DBM file, you can only read hash
668 variables, not set them. If you want to test whether you can write,
669 either use file tests or try setting a dummy hash entry inside an eval(),
670 which will trap the error.
672 Note that functions such as keys() and values() may return huge array
673 values when used on large DBM files. You may prefer to use the each()
674 function to iterate over large DBM files. Example:
676 # print out history file offsets
677 dbmopen(%HIST,'/usr/lib/news/history',0666);
678 while (($key,$val) = each %HIST) {
679 print $key, ' = ', unpack('L',$val), "\n";
683 See also L<AnyDBM_File> for a more general description of the pros and
684 cons of the various dbm approaches, as well as L<DB_File> for a particularly
691 Returns a Boolean value telling whether EXPR has a value other than
692 the undefined value C<undef>. If EXPR is not present, C<$_> will be
695 Many operations return C<undef> to indicate failure, end of file,
696 system error, uninitialized variable, and other exceptional
697 conditions. This function allows you to distinguish C<undef> from
698 other values. (A simple Boolean test will not distinguish among
699 C<undef>, zero, the empty string, and "0", which are all equally
700 false.) Note that since C<undef> is a valid scalar, its presence
701 doesn't I<necessarily> indicate an exceptional condition: pop()
702 returns C<undef> when its argument is an empty array, I<or> when the
703 element to return happens to be C<undef>.
705 You may also use defined() to check whether a subroutine exists. On
706 the other hand, use of defined() upon aggregates (hashes and arrays)
707 is not guaranteed to produce intuitive results, and should probably be
710 When used on a hash element, it tells you whether the value is defined,
711 not whether the key exists in the hash. Use L</exists> for the latter
716 print if defined $switch{'D'};
717 print "$val\n" while defined($val = pop(@ary));
718 die "Can't readlink $sym: $!"
719 unless defined($value = readlink $sym);
720 sub foo { defined &$bar ? &$bar(@_) : die "No bar"; }
721 $debugging = 0 unless defined $debugging;
723 Note: Many folks tend to overuse defined(), and then are surprised to
724 discover that the number 0 and "" (the zero-length string) are, in fact,
725 defined values. For example, if you say
729 the pattern match succeeds, and $1 is defined, despite the fact that it
730 matched "nothing". But it didn't really match nothing--rather, it
731 matched something that happened to be 0 characters long. This is all
732 very above-board and honest. When a function returns an undefined value,
733 it's an admission that it couldn't give you an honest answer. So you
734 should use defined() only when you're questioning the integrity of what
735 you're trying to do. At other times, a simple comparison to 0 or "" is
738 Currently, using defined() on an entire array or hash reports whether
739 memory for that aggregate has ever been allocated. So an array you set
740 to the empty list appears undefined initially, and one that once was full
741 and that you then set to the empty list still appears defined. You
742 should instead use a simple test for size:
744 if (@an_array) { print "has array elements\n" }
745 if (%a_hash) { print "has hash members\n" }
747 Using undef() on these, however, does clear their memory and then report
748 them as not defined anymore, but you shoudln't do that unless you don't
749 plan to use them again, because it saves time when you load them up
750 again to have memory already ready to be filled.
752 This counterintuitive behaviour of defined() on aggregates may be
753 changed, fixed, or broken in a future release of Perl.
755 See also L</undef>, L</exists>, L</ref>.
759 Deletes the specified key(s) and their associated values from a hash.
760 For each key, returns the deleted value associated with that key, or
761 the undefined value if there was no such key. Deleting from C<$ENV{}>
762 modifies the environment. Deleting from a hash tied to a DBM file
763 deletes the entry from the DBM file. (But deleting from a tie()d hash
764 doesn't necessarily return anything.)
766 The following deletes all the values of a hash:
768 foreach $key (keys %HASH) {
774 delete @HASH{keys %HASH}
776 (But both of these are slower than the undef() command.) Note that the
777 EXPR can be arbitrarily complicated as long as the final operation is a
778 hash element lookup or hash slice:
780 delete $ref->[$x][$y]{$key};
781 delete @{$ref->[$x][$y]}{$key1, $key2, @morekeys};
785 Outside of an eval(), prints the value of LIST to C<STDERR> and exits with
786 the current value of C<$!> (errno). If C<$!> is 0, exits with the value of
787 C<($? E<gt>E<gt> 8)> (backtick `command` status). If C<($? E<gt>E<gt> 8)>
788 is 0, exits with 255. Inside an eval(), the error message is stuffed into
789 C<$@>, and the eval() is terminated with the undefined value; this makes
790 die() the way to raise an exception.
794 die "Can't cd to spool: $!\n" unless chdir '/usr/spool/news';
795 chdir '/usr/spool/news' or die "Can't cd to spool: $!\n"
797 If the value of EXPR does not end in a newline, the current script line
798 number and input line number (if any) are also printed, and a newline
799 is supplied. Hint: sometimes appending ", stopped" to your message
800 will cause it to make better sense when the string "at foo line 123" is
801 appended. Suppose you are running script "canasta".
803 die "/etc/games is no good";
804 die "/etc/games is no good, stopped";
806 produce, respectively
808 /etc/games is no good at canasta line 123.
809 /etc/games is no good, stopped at canasta line 123.
811 See also exit() and warn().
813 If LIST is empty and $@ already contains a value (typically from a
814 previous eval) that value is reused after appending "\t...propagated".
815 This is useful for propagating exceptions:
818 die unless $@ =~ /Expected exception/;
820 If $@ is empty then the string "Died" is used.
822 You can arrange for a callback to be called just before the die() does
823 its deed, by setting the C<$SIG{__DIE__}> hook. The associated handler
824 will be called with the error text and can change the error message, if
825 it sees fit, by calling die() again. See L<perlvar/$SIG{expr}> for details on
826 setting C<%SIG> entries, and L<"eval BLOCK"> for some examples.
828 Note that the C<$SIG{__DIE__}> hook is called even inside eval()ed
829 blocks/strings. If one wants the hook to do nothing in such
834 as the first line of the handler (see L<perlvar/$^S>).
838 Not really a function. Returns the value of the last command in the
839 sequence of commands indicated by BLOCK. When modified by a loop
840 modifier, executes the BLOCK once before testing the loop condition.
841 (On other statements the loop modifiers test the conditional first.)
843 =item do SUBROUTINE(LIST)
845 A deprecated form of subroutine call. See L<perlsub>.
849 Uses the value of EXPR as a filename and executes the contents of the
850 file as a Perl script. Its primary use is to include subroutines
851 from a Perl subroutine library.
857 scalar eval `cat stat.pl`;
859 except that it's more efficient, more concise, keeps track of the
860 current filename for error messages, and searches all the B<-I>
861 libraries if the file isn't in the current directory (see also the @INC
862 array in L<perlvar/Predefined Names>). It's the same, however, in that it does
863 reparse the file every time you call it, so you probably don't want to
864 do this inside a loop.
866 Note that inclusion of library modules is better done with the
867 use() and require() operators, which also do error checking
868 and raise an exception if there's a problem.
872 This causes an immediate core dump. Primarily this is so that you can
873 use the B<undump> program to turn your core dump into an executable binary
874 after having initialized all your variables at the beginning of the
875 program. When the new binary is executed it will begin by executing a
876 C<goto LABEL> (with all the restrictions that C<goto> suffers). Think of
877 it as a goto with an intervening core dump and reincarnation. If LABEL
878 is omitted, restarts the program from the top. WARNING: any files
879 opened at the time of the dump will NOT be open any more when the
880 program is reincarnated, with possible resulting confusion on the part
881 of Perl. See also B<-u> option in L<perlrun>.
898 dump QUICKSTART if $ARGV[0] eq '-d';
905 When called in a list context, returns a 2-element array consisting of the
906 key and value for the next element of a hash, so that you can iterate over
907 it. When called in a scalar context, returns the key for only the next
908 element in the hash. (Note: Keys may be "0" or "", which are logically
909 false; you may wish to avoid constructs like C<while ($k = each %foo) {}>
912 Entries are returned in an apparently random order. When the hash is
913 entirely read, a null array is returned in list context (which when
914 assigned produces a FALSE (0) value), and C<undef> is returned in a
915 scalar context. The next call to each() after that will start iterating
916 again. There is a single iterator for each hash, shared by all each(),
917 keys(), and values() function calls in the program; it can be reset by
918 reading all the elements from the hash, or by evaluating C<keys HASH> or
919 C<values HASH>. If you add or delete elements of a hash while you're
920 iterating over it, you may get entries skipped or duplicated, so don't.
922 The following prints out your environment like the printenv(1) program,
923 only in a different order:
925 while (($key,$value) = each %ENV) {
926 print "$key=$value\n";
929 See also keys() and values().
937 Returns 1 if the next read on FILEHANDLE will return end of file, or if
938 FILEHANDLE is not open. FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value
939 gives the real filehandle name. (Note that this function actually
940 reads a character and then ungetc()s it, so it is not very useful in an
941 interactive context.) Do not read from a terminal file (or call
942 C<eof(FILEHANDLE)> on it) after end-of-file is reached. Filetypes such
943 as terminals may lose the end-of-file condition if you do.
945 An C<eof> without an argument uses the last file read as argument.
946 Empty parentheses () may be used to indicate the pseudo file formed of
947 the files listed on the command line, i.e., C<eof()> is reasonable to
948 use inside a C<while (E<lt>E<gt>)> loop to detect the end of only the
949 last file. Use C<eof(ARGV)> or eof without the parentheses to test
950 I<EACH> file in a while (E<lt>E<gt>) loop. Examples:
952 # reset line numbering on each input file
955 close(ARGV) if (eof); # Not eof().
958 # insert dashes just before last line of last file
961 print "--------------\n";
962 close(ARGV); # close or break; is needed if we
963 # are reading from the terminal
968 Practical hint: you almost never need to use C<eof> in Perl, because the
969 input operators return undef when they run out of data.
975 EXPR is parsed and executed as if it were a little Perl program. It
976 is executed in the context of the current Perl program, so that any
977 variable settings or subroutine and format definitions remain afterwards.
978 The value returned is the value of the last expression evaluated, or a
979 return statement may be used, just as with subroutines. The last
980 expression is evaluated in scalar or array context, depending on the
983 If there is a syntax error or runtime error, or a die() statement is
984 executed, an undefined value is returned by eval(), and C<$@> is set to the
985 error message. If there was no error, C<$@> is guaranteed to be a null
986 string. If EXPR is omitted, evaluates C<$_>. The final semicolon, if
987 any, may be omitted from the expression. Beware that using eval()
988 neither silences perl from printing warnings to STDERR, nor does it
989 stuff the text of warning messages into C<$@>. To do either of those,
990 you have to use the C<$SIG{__WARN__}> facility. See warn() and L<perlvar>.
992 Note that, because eval() traps otherwise-fatal errors, it is useful for
993 determining whether a particular feature (such as socket() or symlink())
994 is implemented. It is also Perl's exception trapping mechanism, where
995 the die operator is used to raise exceptions.
997 If the code to be executed doesn't vary, you may use the eval-BLOCK
998 form to trap run-time errors without incurring the penalty of
999 recompiling each time. The error, if any, is still returned in C<$@>.
1002 # make divide-by-zero nonfatal
1003 eval { $answer = $a / $b; }; warn $@ if $@;
1005 # same thing, but less efficient
1006 eval '$answer = $a / $b'; warn $@ if $@;
1008 # a compile-time error
1012 eval '$answer ='; # sets $@
1014 When using the eval{} form as an exception trap in libraries, you may
1015 wish not to trigger any C<__DIE__> hooks that user code may have
1016 installed. You can use the C<local $SIG{__DIE__}> construct for this
1017 purpose, as shown in this example:
1019 # a very private exception trap for divide-by-zero
1020 eval { local $SIG{'__DIE__'}; $answer = $a / $b; }; warn $@ if $@;
1022 This is especially significant, given that C<__DIE__> hooks can call
1023 die() again, which has the effect of changing their error messages:
1025 # __DIE__ hooks may modify error messages
1027 local $SIG{'__DIE__'} = sub { (my $x = $_[0]) =~ s/foo/bar/g; die $x };
1028 eval { die "foo foofs here" };
1029 print $@ if $@; # prints "bar barfs here"
1032 With an eval(), you should be especially careful to remember what's
1033 being looked at when:
1039 eval { $x }; # CASE 4
1041 eval "\$$x++" # CASE 5
1044 Cases 1 and 2 above behave identically: they run the code contained in
1045 the variable $x. (Although case 2 has misleading double quotes making
1046 the reader wonder what else might be happening (nothing is).) Cases 3
1047 and 4 likewise behave in the same way: they run the code '$x', which
1048 does nothing but return the value of C<$x>. (Case 4 is preferred for
1049 purely visual reasons, but it also has the advantage of compiling at
1050 compile-time instead of at run-time.) Case 5 is a place where
1051 normally you I<WOULD> like to use double quotes, except that in this
1052 particular situation, you can just use symbolic references instead, as
1057 The exec() function executes a system command I<AND NEVER RETURNS> -
1058 use system() instead of exec() if you want it to return. It fails and
1059 returns FALSE only if the command does not exist I<and> it is executed
1060 directly instead of via your system's command shell (see below).
1062 If there is more than one argument in LIST, or if LIST is an array with
1063 more than one value, calls execvp(3) with the arguments in LIST. If
1064 there is only one scalar argument, the argument is checked for shell
1065 metacharacters, and if there are any, the entire argument is passed to
1066 the system's command shell for parsing (this is C</bin/sh -c> on Unix
1067 platforms, but varies on other platforms). If there are no shell
1068 metacharacters in the argument, it is split into words and passed
1069 directly to execvp(), which is more efficient. Note: exec() and
1070 system() do not flush your output buffer, so you may need to set C<$|>
1071 to avoid lost output. Examples:
1073 exec '/bin/echo', 'Your arguments are: ', @ARGV;
1074 exec "sort $outfile | uniq";
1076 If you don't really want to execute the first argument, but want to lie
1077 to the program you are executing about its own name, you can specify
1078 the program you actually want to run as an "indirect object" (without a
1079 comma) in front of the LIST. (This always forces interpretation of the
1080 LIST as a multivalued list, even if there is only a single scalar in
1083 $shell = '/bin/csh';
1084 exec $shell '-sh'; # pretend it's a login shell
1088 exec {'/bin/csh'} '-sh'; # pretend it's a login shell
1090 When the arguments get executed via the system shell, results will
1091 be subject to its quirks and capabilities. See L<perlop/"`STRING`">
1096 Returns TRUE if the specified hash key exists in its hash array, even
1097 if the corresponding value is undefined.
1099 print "Exists\n" if exists $array{$key};
1100 print "Defined\n" if defined $array{$key};
1101 print "True\n" if $array{$key};
1103 A hash element can be TRUE only if it's defined, and defined if
1104 it exists, but the reverse doesn't necessarily hold true.
1106 Note that the EXPR can be arbitrarily complicated as long as the final
1107 operation is a hash key lookup:
1109 if (exists $ref->[$x][$y]{$key}) { ... }
1113 Evaluates EXPR and exits immediately with that value. (Actually, it
1114 calls any defined C<END> routines first, but the C<END> routines may not
1115 abort the exit. Likewise any object destructors that need to be called
1116 are called before exit.) Example:
1119 exit 0 if $ans =~ /^[Xx]/;
1121 See also die(). If EXPR is omitted, exits with 0 status. The only
1122 universally portable values for EXPR are 0 for success and 1 for error;
1123 all other values are subject to unpredictable interpretation depending
1124 on the environment in which the Perl program is running.
1126 You shouldn't use exit() to abort a subroutine if there's any chance that
1127 someone might want to trap whatever error happened. Use die() instead,
1128 which can be trapped by an eval().
1134 Returns I<e> (the natural logarithm base) to the power of EXPR.
1135 If EXPR is omitted, gives C<exp($_)>.
1137 =item fcntl FILEHANDLE,FUNCTION,SCALAR
1139 Implements the fcntl(2) function. You'll probably have to say
1143 first to get the correct function definitions. Argument processing and
1144 value return works just like ioctl() below. Note that fcntl() will produce
1145 a fatal error if used on a machine that doesn't implement fcntl(2).
1149 fcntl($filehandle, F_GETLK, $packed_return_buffer);
1151 =item fileno FILEHANDLE
1153 Returns the file descriptor for a filehandle. This is useful for
1154 constructing bitmaps for select(). If FILEHANDLE is an expression, the
1155 value is taken as the name of the filehandle.
1157 =item flock FILEHANDLE,OPERATION
1159 Calls flock(2), or an emulation of it, on FILEHANDLE. Returns TRUE for
1160 success, FALSE on failure. Produces a fatal error if used on a machine
1161 that doesn't implement flock(2), fcntl(2) locking, or lockf(3). flock()
1162 is Perl's portable file locking interface, although it locks only entire
1165 OPERATION is one of LOCK_SH, LOCK_EX, or LOCK_UN, possibly combined with
1166 LOCK_NB. These constants are traditionally valued 1, 2, 8 and 4, but
1167 you can use the symbolic names if import them from the Fcntl module,
1168 either individually, or as a group using the ':flock' tag. LOCK_SH
1169 requests a shared lock, LOCK_EX requests an exclusive lock, and LOCK_UN
1170 releases a previously requested lock. If LOCK_NB is added to LOCK_SH or
1171 LOCK_EX then flock() will return immediately rather than blocking
1172 waiting for the lock (check the return status to see if you got it).
1174 To avoid the possibility of mis-coordination, Perl flushes FILEHANDLE
1175 before (un)locking it.
1177 Note that the emulation built with lockf(3) doesn't provide shared
1178 locks, and it requires that FILEHANDLE be open with write intent. These
1179 are the semantics that lockf(3) implements. Most (all?) systems
1180 implement lockf(3) in terms of fcntl(2) locking, though, so the
1181 differing semantics shouldn't bite too many people.
1183 Note also that some versions of flock() cannot lock things over the
1184 network; you would need to use the more system-specific fcntl() for
1185 that. If you like you can force Perl to ignore your system's flock(2)
1186 function, and so provide its own fcntl(2)-based emulation, by passing
1187 the switch C<-Ud_flock> to the F<Configure> program when you configure
1190 Here's a mailbox appender for BSD systems.
1192 use Fcntl ':flock'; # import LOCK_* constants
1195 flock(MBOX,LOCK_EX);
1196 # and, in case someone appended
1197 # while we were waiting...
1202 flock(MBOX,LOCK_UN);
1205 open(MBOX, ">>/usr/spool/mail/$ENV{'USER'}")
1206 or die "Can't open mailbox: $!";
1209 print MBOX $msg,"\n\n";
1212 See also L<DB_File> for other flock() examples.
1216 Does a fork(2) system call. Returns the child pid to the parent process
1217 and 0 to the child process, or C<undef> if the fork is unsuccessful.
1218 Note: unflushed buffers remain unflushed in both processes, which means
1219 you may need to set C<$|> ($AUTOFLUSH in English) or call the autoflush()
1220 method of IO::Handle to avoid duplicate output.
1222 If you fork() without ever waiting on your children, you will accumulate
1225 $SIG{CHLD} = sub { wait };
1227 There's also the double-fork trick (error checking on
1228 fork() returns omitted);
1230 unless ($pid = fork) {
1232 exec "what you really wanna do";
1235 ## (some_perl_code_here)
1242 See also L<perlipc> for more examples of forking and reaping
1245 Note that if your forked child inherits system file descriptors like
1246 STDIN and STDOUT that are actually connected by a pipe or socket, even
1247 if you exit, the remote server (such as, say, httpd or rsh) won't think
1248 you're done. You should reopen those to /dev/null if it's any issue.
1252 Declare a picture format with use by the write() function. For
1256 Test: @<<<<<<<< @||||| @>>>>>
1257 $str, $%, '$' . int($num)
1261 $num = $cost/$quantity;
1265 See L<perlform> for many details and examples.
1268 =item formline PICTURE,LIST
1270 This is an internal function used by C<format>s, though you may call it
1271 too. It formats (see L<perlform>) a list of values according to the
1272 contents of PICTURE, placing the output into the format output
1273 accumulator, C<$^A> (or $ACCUMULATOR in English).
1274 Eventually, when a write() is done, the contents of
1275 C<$^A> are written to some filehandle, but you could also read C<$^A>
1276 yourself and then set C<$^A> back to "". Note that a format typically
1277 does one formline() per line of form, but the formline() function itself
1278 doesn't care how many newlines are embedded in the PICTURE. This means
1279 that the C<~> and C<~~> tokens will treat the entire PICTURE as a single line.
1280 You may therefore need to use multiple formlines to implement a single
1281 record format, just like the format compiler.
1283 Be careful if you put double quotes around the picture, because an "C<@>"
1284 character may be taken to mean the beginning of an array name.
1285 formline() always returns TRUE. See L<perlform> for other examples.
1287 =item getc FILEHANDLE
1291 Returns the next character from the input file attached to FILEHANDLE,
1292 or a null string at end of file. If FILEHANDLE is omitted, reads from STDIN.
1293 This is not particularly efficient. It cannot be used to get unbuffered
1294 single-characters, however. For that, try something more like:
1297 system "stty cbreak </dev/tty >/dev/tty 2>&1";
1300 system "stty", '-icanon', 'eol', "\001";
1306 system "stty -cbreak </dev/tty >/dev/tty 2>&1";
1309 system "stty", 'icanon', 'eol', '^@'; # ASCII null
1313 Determination of whether $BSD_STYLE should be set
1314 is left as an exercise to the reader.
1316 The POSIX::getattr() function can do this more portably on systems
1317 alleging POSIX compliance.
1318 See also the C<Term::ReadKey> module from your nearest CPAN site;
1319 details on CPAN can be found on L<perlmod/CPAN>.
1323 Returns the current login from F</etc/utmp>, if any. If null, use
1326 $login = getlogin || getpwuid($<) || "Kilroy";
1328 Do not consider getlogin() for authentication: it is not as
1329 secure as getpwuid().
1331 =item getpeername SOCKET
1333 Returns the packed sockaddr address of other end of the SOCKET connection.
1336 $hersockaddr = getpeername(SOCK);
1337 ($port, $iaddr) = unpack_sockaddr_in($hersockaddr);
1338 $herhostname = gethostbyaddr($iaddr, AF_INET);
1339 $herstraddr = inet_ntoa($iaddr);
1343 Returns the current process group for the specified PID. Use
1344 a PID of 0 to get the current process group for the
1345 current process. Will raise an exception if used on a machine that
1346 doesn't implement getpgrp(2). If PID is omitted, returns process
1347 group of current process. Note that the POSIX version of getpgrp()
1348 does not accept a PID argument, so only PID==0 is truly portable.
1352 Returns the process id of the parent process.
1354 =item getpriority WHICH,WHO
1356 Returns the current priority for a process, a process group, or a user.
1357 (See L<getpriority(2)>.) Will raise a fatal exception if used on a
1358 machine that doesn't implement getpriority(2).
1364 =item gethostbyname NAME
1366 =item getnetbyname NAME
1368 =item getprotobyname NAME
1374 =item getservbyname NAME,PROTO
1376 =item gethostbyaddr ADDR,ADDRTYPE
1378 =item getnetbyaddr ADDR,ADDRTYPE
1380 =item getprotobynumber NUMBER
1382 =item getservbyport PORT,PROTO
1400 =item sethostent STAYOPEN
1402 =item setnetent STAYOPEN
1404 =item setprotoent STAYOPEN
1406 =item setservent STAYOPEN
1420 These routines perform the same functions as their counterparts in the
1421 system library. Within a list context, the return values from the
1422 various get routines are as follows:
1424 ($name,$passwd,$uid,$gid,
1425 $quota,$comment,$gcos,$dir,$shell) = getpw*
1426 ($name,$passwd,$gid,$members) = getgr*
1427 ($name,$aliases,$addrtype,$length,@addrs) = gethost*
1428 ($name,$aliases,$addrtype,$net) = getnet*
1429 ($name,$aliases,$proto) = getproto*
1430 ($name,$aliases,$port,$proto) = getserv*
1432 (If the entry doesn't exist you get a null list.)
1434 Within a scalar context, you get the name, unless the function was a
1435 lookup by name, in which case you get the other thing, whatever it is.
1436 (If the entry doesn't exist you get the undefined value.) For example:
1446 The $members value returned by I<getgr*()> is a space separated list of
1447 the login names of the members of the group.
1449 For the I<gethost*()> functions, if the C<h_errno> variable is supported in
1450 C, it will be returned to you via C<$?> if the function call fails. The
1451 @addrs value returned by a successful call is a list of the raw
1452 addresses returned by the corresponding system library call. In the
1453 Internet domain, each address is four bytes long and you can unpack it
1454 by saying something like:
1456 ($a,$b,$c,$d) = unpack('C4',$addr[0]);
1458 =item getsockname SOCKET
1460 Returns the packed sockaddr address of this end of the SOCKET connection.
1463 $mysockaddr = getsockname(SOCK);
1464 ($port, $myaddr) = unpack_sockaddr_in($mysockaddr);
1466 =item getsockopt SOCKET,LEVEL,OPTNAME
1468 Returns the socket option requested, or undefined if there is an error.
1474 Returns the value of EXPR with filename expansions such as a shell would
1475 do. This is the internal function implementing the C<E<lt>*.cE<gt>>
1476 operator, but you can use it directly. If EXPR is omitted, $_ is used.
1477 The C<E<lt>*.cE<gt>> operator is discussed in more detail in
1478 L<perlop/"I/O Operators">.
1482 Converts a time as returned by the time function to a 9-element array
1483 with the time localized for the standard Greenwich time zone.
1484 Typically used as follows:
1487 ($sec,$min,$hour,$mday,$mon,$year,$wday,$yday,$isdst) =
1490 All array elements are numeric, and come straight out of a struct tm.
1491 In particular this means that $mon has the range 0..11 and $wday has
1492 the range 0..6 with sunday as day 0. Also, $year is the number of
1493 years since 1900, I<not> simply the last two digits of the year.
1495 If EXPR is omitted, does C<gmtime(time())>.
1497 In a scalar context, returns the ctime(3) value:
1499 $now_string = gmtime; # e.g., "Thu Oct 13 04:54:34 1994"
1501 Also see the timegm() function provided by the Time::Local module,
1502 and the strftime(3) function available via the POSIX module.
1510 The goto-LABEL form finds the statement labeled with LABEL and resumes
1511 execution there. It may not be used to go into any construct that
1512 requires initialization, such as a subroutine or a foreach loop. It
1513 also can't be used to go into a construct that is optimized away,
1514 or to get out of a block or subroutine given to sort().
1515 It can be used to go almost anywhere else within the dynamic scope,
1516 including out of subroutines, but it's usually better to use some other
1517 construct such as last or die. The author of Perl has never felt the
1518 need to use this form of goto (in Perl, that is--C is another matter).
1520 The goto-EXPR form expects a label name, whose scope will be resolved
1521 dynamically. This allows for computed gotos per FORTRAN, but isn't
1522 necessarily recommended if you're optimizing for maintainability:
1524 goto ("FOO", "BAR", "GLARCH")[$i];
1526 The goto-&NAME form is highly magical, and substitutes a call to the
1527 named subroutine for the currently running subroutine. This is used by
1528 AUTOLOAD subroutines that wish to load another subroutine and then
1529 pretend that the other subroutine had been called in the first place
1530 (except that any modifications to @_ in the current subroutine are
1531 propagated to the other subroutine.) After the goto, not even caller()
1532 will be able to tell that this routine was called first.
1534 =item grep BLOCK LIST
1536 =item grep EXPR,LIST
1538 This is similar in spirit to, but not the same as, grep(1)
1539 and its relatives. In particular, it is not limited to using
1540 regular expressions.
1542 Evaluates the BLOCK or EXPR for each element of LIST (locally setting
1543 $_ to each element) and returns the list value consisting of those
1544 elements for which the expression evaluated to TRUE. In a scalar
1545 context, returns the number of times the expression was TRUE.
1547 @foo = grep(!/^#/, @bar); # weed out comments
1551 @foo = grep {!/^#/} @bar; # weed out comments
1553 Note that, because $_ is a reference into the list value, it can be used
1554 to modify the elements of the array. While this is useful and
1555 supported, it can cause bizarre results if the LIST is not a named
1556 array. Similarly, grep returns aliases into the original list,
1557 much like the way that L<Foreach Loops>'s index variable aliases the list
1558 elements. That is, modifying an element of a list returned by grep
1559 (for example, in a C<foreach>, C<map> or another C<grep>)
1560 actually modifies the element in the original list.
1562 See also L</map> for an array composed of the results of the BLOCK or EXPR.
1567 Interprets EXPR as a hex string and returns the corresponding
1568 value. (To convert strings that might start with either 0 or 0x
1569 see L</oct>.) If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
1571 print hex '0xAf'; # prints '175'
1572 print hex 'aF'; # same
1576 There is no builtin import() function. It is merely an ordinary
1577 method (subroutine) defined (or inherited) by modules that wish to export
1578 names to another module. The use() function calls the import() method
1579 for the package used. See also L</use()>, L<perlmod>, and L<Exporter>.
1581 =item index STR,SUBSTR,POSITION
1583 =item index STR,SUBSTR
1585 Returns the position of the first occurrence of SUBSTR in STR at or after
1586 POSITION. If POSITION is omitted, starts searching from the beginning of
1587 the string. The return value is based at 0 (or whatever you've set the C<$[>
1588 variable to--but don't do that). If the substring is not found, returns
1589 one less than the base, ordinarily -1.
1595 Returns the integer portion of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
1597 =item ioctl FILEHANDLE,FUNCTION,SCALAR
1599 Implements the ioctl(2) function. You'll probably have to say
1601 require "ioctl.ph"; # probably in /usr/local/lib/perl/ioctl.ph
1603 first to get the correct function definitions. If F<ioctl.ph> doesn't
1604 exist or doesn't have the correct definitions you'll have to roll your
1605 own, based on your C header files such as F<E<lt>sys/ioctl.hE<gt>>.
1606 (There is a Perl script called B<h2ph> that comes with the Perl kit which
1607 may help you in this, but it's nontrivial.) SCALAR will be read and/or
1608 written depending on the FUNCTION--a pointer to the string value of SCALAR
1609 will be passed as the third argument of the actual ioctl call. (If SCALAR
1610 has no string value but does have a numeric value, that value will be
1611 passed rather than a pointer to the string value. To guarantee this to be
1612 TRUE, add a 0 to the scalar before using it.) The pack() and unpack()
1613 functions are useful for manipulating the values of structures used by
1614 ioctl(). The following example sets the erase character to DEL.
1618 die "NO TIOCGETP" if $@ || !$getp;
1619 $sgttyb_t = "ccccs"; # 4 chars and a short
1620 if (ioctl(STDIN,$getp,$sgttyb)) {
1621 @ary = unpack($sgttyb_t,$sgttyb);
1623 $sgttyb = pack($sgttyb_t,@ary);
1624 ioctl(STDIN,&TIOCSETP,$sgttyb)
1625 || die "Can't ioctl: $!";
1628 The return value of ioctl (and fcntl) is as follows:
1630 if OS returns: then Perl returns:
1632 0 string "0 but true"
1633 anything else that number
1635 Thus Perl returns TRUE on success and FALSE on failure, yet you can
1636 still easily determine the actual value returned by the operating
1639 ($retval = ioctl(...)) || ($retval = -1);
1640 printf "System returned %d\n", $retval;
1642 =item join EXPR,LIST
1644 Joins the separate strings of LIST into a single string with
1645 fields separated by the value of EXPR, and returns the string.
1648 $_ = join(':', $login,$passwd,$uid,$gid,$gcos,$home,$shell);
1650 See L<perlfunc/split>.
1654 Returns a normal array consisting of all the keys of the named hash. (In
1655 a scalar context, returns the number of keys.) The keys are returned in
1656 an apparently random order, but it is the same order as either the
1657 values() or each() function produces (given that the hash has not been
1658 modified). As a side effect, it resets HASH's iterator.
1660 Here is yet another way to print your environment:
1663 @values = values %ENV;
1664 while ($#keys >= 0) {
1665 print pop(@keys), '=', pop(@values), "\n";
1668 or how about sorted by key:
1670 foreach $key (sort(keys %ENV)) {
1671 print $key, '=', $ENV{$key}, "\n";
1674 To sort an array by value, you'll need to use a C<sort> function.
1675 Here's a descending numeric sort of a hash by its values:
1677 foreach $key (sort { $hash{$b} <=> $hash{$a} } keys %hash)) {
1678 printf "%4d %s\n", $hash{$key}, $key;
1681 As an lvalue C<keys> allows you to increase the number of hash buckets
1682 allocated for the given hash. This can gain you a measure of efficiency if
1683 you know the hash is going to get big. (This is similar to pre-extending
1684 an array by assigning a larger number to $#array.) If you say
1688 then C<%hash> will have at least 200 buckets allocated for it. These
1689 buckets will be retained even if you do C<%hash = ()>, use C<undef
1690 %hash> if you want to free the storage while C<%hash> is still in scope.
1691 You can't shrink the number of buckets allocated for the hash using
1692 C<keys> in this way (but you needn't worry about doing this by accident,
1693 as trying has no effect).
1697 Sends a signal to a list of processes. The first element of
1698 the list must be the signal to send. Returns the number of
1699 processes successfully signaled.
1701 $cnt = kill 1, $child1, $child2;
1704 Unlike in the shell, in Perl if the I<SIGNAL> is negative, it kills
1705 process groups instead of processes. (On System V, a negative I<PROCESS>
1706 number will also kill process groups, but that's not portable.) That
1707 means you usually want to use positive not negative signals. You may also
1708 use a signal name in quotes. See L<perlipc/"Signals"> for details.
1714 The C<last> command is like the C<break> statement in C (as used in
1715 loops); it immediately exits the loop in question. If the LABEL is
1716 omitted, the command refers to the innermost enclosing loop. The
1717 C<continue> block, if any, is not executed:
1719 LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
1720 last LINE if /^$/; # exit when done with header
1728 Returns an lowercased version of EXPR. This is the internal function
1729 implementing the \L escape in double-quoted strings.
1730 Respects current LC_CTYPE locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale>.
1732 If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
1738 Returns the value of EXPR with the first character lowercased. This is
1739 the internal function implementing the \l escape in double-quoted strings.
1740 Respects current LC_CTYPE locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale>.
1742 If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
1748 Returns the length in characters of the value of EXPR. If EXPR is
1749 omitted, returns length of $_.
1751 =item link OLDFILE,NEWFILE
1753 Creates a new filename linked to the old filename. Returns 1 for
1754 success, 0 otherwise.
1756 =item listen SOCKET,QUEUESIZE
1758 Does the same thing that the listen system call does. Returns TRUE if
1759 it succeeded, FALSE otherwise. See example in L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">.
1763 A local modifies the listed variables to be local to the enclosing block,
1764 subroutine, C<eval{}>, or C<do>. If more than one value is listed, the
1765 list must be placed in parentheses. See L<perlsub/"Temporary Values via
1766 local()"> for details, including issues with tied arrays and hashes.
1768 But you really probably want to be using my() instead, because local() isn't
1769 what most people think of as "local"). See L<perlsub/"Private Variables
1770 via my()"> for details.
1772 =item localtime EXPR
1774 Converts a time as returned by the time function to a 9-element array
1775 with the time analyzed for the local time zone. Typically used as
1779 ($sec,$min,$hour,$mday,$mon,$year,$wday,$yday,$isdst) =
1782 All array elements are numeric, and come straight out of a struct tm.
1783 In particular this means that $mon has the range 0..11 and $wday has
1784 the range 0..6 with sunday as day 0. Also, $year is the number of
1785 years since 1900, that is, $year is 123 in year 2023.
1787 If EXPR is omitted, uses the current time (C<localtime(time)>).
1789 In a scalar context, returns the ctime(3) value:
1791 $now_string = localtime; # e.g., "Thu Oct 13 04:54:34 1994"
1793 This scalar value is B<not> locale dependent, see L<perllocale>,
1794 but instead a Perl builtin.
1795 Also see the Time::Local module, and the strftime(3) and mktime(3)
1796 function available via the POSIX module.
1802 Returns logarithm (base I<e>) of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, returns log
1805 =item lstat FILEHANDLE
1811 Does the same thing as the stat() function, but stats a symbolic link
1812 instead of the file the symbolic link points to. If symbolic links are
1813 unimplemented on your system, a normal stat() is done.
1815 If EXPR is omitted, stats $_.
1819 The match operator. See L<perlop>.
1821 =item map BLOCK LIST
1825 Evaluates the BLOCK or EXPR for each element of LIST (locally setting $_ to each
1826 element) and returns the list value composed of the results of each such
1827 evaluation. Evaluates BLOCK or EXPR in a list context, so each element of LIST
1828 may produce zero, one, or more elements in the returned value.
1830 @chars = map(chr, @nums);
1832 translates a list of numbers to the corresponding characters. And
1834 %hash = map { getkey($_) => $_ } @array;
1836 is just a funny way to write
1839 foreach $_ (@array) {
1840 $hash{getkey($_)} = $_;
1843 Note that, because $_ is a reference into the list value, it can be used
1844 to modify the elements of the array. While this is useful and
1845 supported, it can cause bizarre results if the LIST is not a named
1846 array. See also L</grep> for an array composed of those items of the
1847 original list for which the BLOCK or EXPR evaluates to true.
1849 =item mkdir FILENAME,MODE
1851 Creates the directory specified by FILENAME, with permissions specified
1852 by MODE (as modified by umask). If it succeeds it returns 1, otherwise
1853 it returns 0 and sets C<$!> (errno).
1855 =item msgctl ID,CMD,ARG
1857 Calls the System V IPC function msgctl(2). If CMD is &IPC_STAT, then ARG
1858 must be a variable which will hold the returned msqid_ds structure.
1859 Returns like ioctl: the undefined value for error, "0 but true" for
1860 zero, or the actual return value otherwise.
1862 =item msgget KEY,FLAGS
1864 Calls the System V IPC function msgget(2). Returns the message queue id,
1865 or the undefined value if there is an error.
1867 =item msgsnd ID,MSG,FLAGS
1869 Calls the System V IPC function msgsnd to send the message MSG to the
1870 message queue ID. MSG must begin with the long integer message type,
1871 which may be created with C<pack("l", $type)>. Returns TRUE if
1872 successful, or FALSE if there is an error.
1874 =item msgrcv ID,VAR,SIZE,TYPE,FLAGS
1876 Calls the System V IPC function msgrcv to receive a message from
1877 message queue ID into variable VAR with a maximum message size of
1878 SIZE. Note that if a message is received, the message type will be the
1879 first thing in VAR, and the maximum length of VAR is SIZE plus the size
1880 of the message type. Returns TRUE if successful, or FALSE if there is
1885 A "my" declares the listed variables to be local (lexically) to the
1886 enclosing block, subroutine, C<eval>, or C<do/require/use>'d file. If
1887 more than one value is listed, the list must be placed in parentheses. See
1888 L<perlsub/"Private Variables via my()"> for details.
1894 The C<next> command is like the C<continue> statement in C; it starts
1895 the next iteration of the loop:
1897 LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
1898 next LINE if /^#/; # discard comments
1902 Note that if there were a C<continue> block on the above, it would get
1903 executed even on discarded lines. If the LABEL is omitted, the command
1904 refers to the innermost enclosing loop.
1906 =item no Module LIST
1908 See the "use" function, which "no" is the opposite of.
1914 Interprets EXPR as an octal string and returns the corresponding
1915 value. (If EXPR happens to start off with 0x, interprets it as
1916 a hex string instead.) The following will handle decimal, octal, and
1917 hex in the standard Perl or C notation:
1919 $val = oct($val) if $val =~ /^0/;
1921 If EXPR is omitted, uses $_. This function is commonly used when
1922 a string such as "644" needs to be converted into a file mode, for
1923 example. (Although perl will automatically convert strings into
1924 numbers as needed, this automatic conversion assumes base 10.)
1926 =item open FILEHANDLE,EXPR
1928 =item open FILEHANDLE
1930 Opens the file whose filename is given by EXPR, and associates it with
1931 FILEHANDLE. If FILEHANDLE is an expression, its value is used as the
1932 name of the real filehandle wanted. If EXPR is omitted, the scalar
1933 variable of the same name as the FILEHANDLE contains the filename.
1934 (Note that lexical variables--those declared with C<my>--will not work
1935 for this purpose; so if you're using C<my>, specify EXPR in your call
1938 If the filename begins with '<' or nothing, the file is opened for input.
1939 If the filename begins with '>', the file is truncated and opened for
1940 output. If the filename begins with '>>', the file is opened for
1941 appending. You can put a '+' in front of the '>' or '<' to indicate that
1942 you want both read and write access to the file; thus '+<' is almost
1943 always preferred for read/write updates--the '+>' mode would clobber the
1944 file first. The prefix and the filename may be separated with spaces.
1945 These various prefixes correspond to the fopen(3) modes of 'r', 'r+', 'w',
1946 'w+', 'a', and 'a+'.
1948 If the filename begins with "|", the filename is interpreted as a command
1949 to which output is to be piped, and if the filename ends with a "|", the
1950 filename is interpreted See L<perlipc/"Using open() for IPC"> for more
1951 examples of this. as command which pipes input to us. (You may not have
1952 a raw open() to a command that pipes both in I<and> out, but see
1953 L<IPC::Open2>, L<IPC::Open3>, and L<perlipc/"Bidirectional Communication">
1956 Opening '-' opens STDIN and opening 'E<gt>-' opens STDOUT. Open returns
1957 nonzero upon success, the undefined value otherwise. If the open
1958 involved a pipe, the return value happens to be the pid of the
1961 If you're unfortunate enough to be running Perl on a system that
1962 distinguishes between text files and binary files (modern operating
1963 systems don't care), then you should check out L</binmode> for tips for
1964 dealing with this. The key distinction between systems that need binmode
1965 and those that don't is their text file formats. Systems like Unix and
1966 Plan9 that delimit lines with a single character, and that encode that
1967 character in C as '\n', do not need C<binmode>. The rest need it.
1969 When opening a file, it's usually a bad idea to continue normal execution
1970 if the request failed, so C<open> is frequently used in connection with
1971 C<die>. Even if C<die> won't do what you want (say, in a CGI script,
1972 where you want to make a nicely formatted error message (but there are
1973 modules which can help with that problem)) you should always check
1974 the return value from opening a file. The infrequent exception is when
1975 working with an unopened filehandle is actually what you want to do.
1980 open ARTICLE or die "Can't find article $ARTICLE: $!\n";
1981 while (<ARTICLE>) {...
1983 open(LOG, '>>/usr/spool/news/twitlog'); # (log is reserved)
1984 # if the open fails, output is discarded
1986 open(DBASE, '+<dbase.mine') # open for update
1987 or die "Can't open 'dbase.mine' for update: $!";
1989 open(ARTICLE, "caesar <$article |") # decrypt article
1990 or die "Can't start caesar: $!";
1992 open(EXTRACT, "|sort >/tmp/Tmp$$") # $$ is our process id
1993 or die "Can't start sort: $!";
1995 # process argument list of files along with any includes
1997 foreach $file (@ARGV) {
1998 process($file, 'fh00');
2002 local($filename, $input) = @_;
2003 $input++; # this is a string increment
2004 unless (open($input, $filename)) {
2005 print STDERR "Can't open $filename: $!\n";
2009 while (<$input>) { # note use of indirection
2010 if (/^#include "(.*)"/) {
2011 process($1, $input);
2018 You may also, in the Bourne shell tradition, specify an EXPR beginning
2019 with "E<gt>&", in which case the rest of the string is interpreted as the
2020 name of a filehandle (or file descriptor, if numeric) which is to be
2021 duped and opened. You may use & after E<gt>, E<gt>E<gt>, E<lt>, +E<gt>,
2022 +E<gt>E<gt>, and +E<lt>. The
2023 mode you specify should match the mode of the original filehandle.
2024 (Duping a filehandle does not take into account any existing contents of
2026 Here is a script that saves, redirects, and restores STDOUT and
2030 open(SAVEOUT, ">&STDOUT");
2031 open(SAVEERR, ">&STDERR");
2033 open(STDOUT, ">foo.out") || die "Can't redirect stdout";
2034 open(STDERR, ">&STDOUT") || die "Can't dup stdout";
2036 select(STDERR); $| = 1; # make unbuffered
2037 select(STDOUT); $| = 1; # make unbuffered
2039 print STDOUT "stdout 1\n"; # this works for
2040 print STDERR "stderr 1\n"; # subprocesses too
2045 open(STDOUT, ">&SAVEOUT");
2046 open(STDERR, ">&SAVEERR");
2048 print STDOUT "stdout 2\n";
2049 print STDERR "stderr 2\n";
2052 If you specify "E<lt>&=N", where N is a number, then Perl will do an
2053 equivalent of C's fdopen() of that file descriptor; this is more
2054 parsimonious of file descriptors. For example:
2056 open(FILEHANDLE, "<&=$fd")
2058 If you open a pipe on the command "-", i.e., either "|-" or "-|", then
2059 there is an implicit fork done, and the return value of open is the pid
2060 of the child within the parent process, and 0 within the child
2061 process. (Use C<defined($pid)> to determine whether the open was successful.)
2062 The filehandle behaves normally for the parent, but i/o to that
2063 filehandle is piped from/to the STDOUT/STDIN of the child process.
2064 In the child process the filehandle isn't opened--i/o happens from/to
2065 the new STDOUT or STDIN. Typically this is used like the normal
2066 piped open when you want to exercise more control over just how the
2067 pipe command gets executed, such as when you are running setuid, and
2068 don't want to have to scan shell commands for metacharacters.
2069 The following pairs are more or less equivalent:
2071 open(FOO, "|tr '[a-z]' '[A-Z]'");
2072 open(FOO, "|-") || exec 'tr', '[a-z]', '[A-Z]';
2074 open(FOO, "cat -n '$file'|");
2075 open(FOO, "-|") || exec 'cat', '-n', $file;
2077 See L<perlipc/"Safe Pipe Opens"> for more examples of this.
2079 NOTE: On any operation which may do a fork, unflushed buffers remain
2080 unflushed in both processes, which means you may need to set C<$|> to
2081 avoid duplicate output.
2083 Closing any piped filehandle causes the parent process to wait for the
2084 child to finish, and returns the status value in C<$?>.
2086 Using the constructor from the IO::Handle package (or one of its
2087 subclasses, such as IO::File or IO::Socket),
2088 you can generate anonymous filehandles which have the scope of whatever
2089 variables hold references to them, and automatically close whenever
2090 and however you leave that scope:
2094 sub read_myfile_munged {
2096 my $handle = new IO::File;
2097 open($handle, "myfile") or die "myfile: $!";
2099 or return (); # Automatically closed here.
2100 mung $first or die "mung failed"; # Or here.
2101 return $first, <$handle> if $ALL; # Or here.
2105 The filename that is passed to open will have leading and trailing
2106 whitespace deleted. To open a file with arbitrary weird
2107 characters in it, it's necessary to protect any leading and trailing
2110 $file =~ s#^(\s)#./$1#;
2111 open(FOO, "< $file\0");
2113 If you want a "real" C open() (see L<open(2)> on your system), then
2114 you should use the sysopen() function. This is another way to
2115 protect your filenames from interpretation. For example:
2118 sysopen(HANDLE, $path, O_RDWR|O_CREAT|O_EXCL, 0700)
2119 or die "sysopen $path: $!";
2120 HANDLE->autoflush(1);
2121 HANDLE->print("stuff $$\n");
2123 print "File contains: ", <HANDLE>;
2125 See L</seek()> for some details about mixing reading and writing.
2127 =item opendir DIRHANDLE,EXPR
2129 Opens a directory named EXPR for processing by readdir(), telldir(),
2130 seekdir(), rewinddir(), and closedir(). Returns TRUE if successful.
2131 DIRHANDLEs have their own namespace separate from FILEHANDLEs.
2137 Returns the numeric ascii value of the first character of EXPR. If
2138 EXPR is omitted, uses $_. For the reverse, see L</chr>.
2140 =item pack TEMPLATE,LIST
2142 Takes an array or list of values and packs it into a binary structure,
2143 returning the string containing the structure. The TEMPLATE is a
2144 sequence of characters that give the order and type of values, as
2147 A An ascii string, will be space padded.
2148 a An ascii string, will be null padded.
2149 b A bit string (ascending bit order, like vec()).
2150 B A bit string (descending bit order).
2151 h A hex string (low nybble first).
2152 H A hex string (high nybble first).
2154 c A signed char value.
2155 C An unsigned char value.
2157 s A signed short value.
2158 S An unsigned short value.
2159 (This 'short' is _exactly_ 16 bits, which may differ from
2160 what a local C compiler calls 'short'.)
2162 i A signed integer value.
2163 I An unsigned integer value.
2164 (This 'integer' is _at_least_ 32 bits wide. Its exact size
2165 depends on what a local C compiler calls 'int', and may
2166 even be larger than the 'long' described in the next item.)
2168 l A signed long value.
2169 L An unsigned long value.
2170 (This 'long' is _exactly_ 32 bits, which may differ from
2171 what a local C compiler calls 'long'.)
2173 n A short in "network" (big-endian) order.
2174 N A long in "network" (big-endian) order.
2175 v A short in "VAX" (little-endian) order.
2176 V A long in "VAX" (little-endian) order.
2177 (These 'shorts' and 'longs' are _exactly_ 16 bits and
2178 _exactly_ 32 bits, respectively.)
2180 f A single-precision float in the native format.
2181 d A double-precision float in the native format.
2183 p A pointer to a null-terminated string.
2184 P A pointer to a structure (fixed-length string).
2186 u A uuencoded string.
2188 w A BER compressed integer. Its bytes represent an unsigned
2189 integer in base 128, most significant digit first, with as few
2190 digits as possible. Bit eight (the high bit) is set on each
2191 byte except the last.
2195 @ Null fill to absolute position.
2197 Each letter may optionally be followed by a number which gives a repeat
2198 count. With all types except "a", "A", "b", "B", "h", "H", and "P" the
2199 pack function will gobble up that many values from the LIST. A * for the
2200 repeat count means to use however many items are left. The "a" and "A"
2201 types gobble just one value, but pack it as a string of length count,
2202 padding with nulls or spaces as necessary. (When unpacking, "A" strips
2203 trailing spaces and nulls, but "a" does not.) Likewise, the "b" and "B"
2204 fields pack a string that many bits long. The "h" and "H" fields pack a
2205 string that many nybbles long. The "p" type packs a pointer to a null-
2206 terminated string. You are responsible for ensuring the string is not a
2207 temporary value (which can potentially get deallocated before you get
2208 around to using the packed result). The "P" packs a pointer to a structure
2209 of the size indicated by the length. A NULL pointer is created if the
2210 corresponding value for "p" or "P" is C<undef>.
2211 Real numbers (floats and doubles) are
2212 in the native machine format only; due to the multiplicity of floating
2213 formats around, and the lack of a standard "network" representation, no
2214 facility for interchange has been made. This means that packed floating
2215 point data written on one machine may not be readable on another - even if
2216 both use IEEE floating point arithmetic (as the endian-ness of the memory
2217 representation is not part of the IEEE spec). Note that Perl uses doubles
2218 internally for all numeric calculation, and converting from double into
2219 float and thence back to double again will lose precision (i.e.,
2220 C<unpack("f", pack("f", $foo)>) will not in general equal $foo).
2224 $foo = pack("cccc",65,66,67,68);
2226 $foo = pack("c4",65,66,67,68);
2229 $foo = pack("ccxxcc",65,66,67,68);
2232 $foo = pack("s2",1,2);
2233 # "\1\0\2\0" on little-endian
2234 # "\0\1\0\2" on big-endian
2236 $foo = pack("a4","abcd","x","y","z");
2239 $foo = pack("aaaa","abcd","x","y","z");
2242 $foo = pack("a14","abcdefg");
2243 # "abcdefg\0\0\0\0\0\0\0"
2245 $foo = pack("i9pl", gmtime);
2246 # a real struct tm (on my system anyway)
2249 unpack("N", pack("B32", substr("0" x 32 . shift, -32)));
2252 The same template may generally also be used in the unpack function.
2254 =item package NAMESPACE
2256 Declares the compilation unit as being in the given namespace. The scope
2257 of the package declaration is from the declaration itself through the end of
2258 the enclosing block (the same scope as the local() operator). All further
2259 unqualified dynamic identifiers will be in this namespace. A package
2260 statement affects only dynamic variables--including those you've used
2261 local() on--but I<not> lexical variables created with my(). Typically it
2262 would be the first declaration in a file to be included by the C<require>
2263 or C<use> operator. You can switch into a package in more than one place;
2264 it influences merely which symbol table is used by the compiler for the
2265 rest of that block. You can refer to variables and filehandles in other
2266 packages by prefixing the identifier with the package name and a double
2267 colon: C<$Package::Variable>. If the package name is null, the C<main>
2268 package as assumed. That is, C<$::sail> is equivalent to C<$main::sail>.
2270 See L<perlmod/"Packages"> for more information about packages, modules,
2271 and classes. See L<perlsub> for other scoping issues.
2273 =item pipe READHANDLE,WRITEHANDLE
2275 Opens a pair of connected pipes like the corresponding system call.
2276 Note that if you set up a loop of piped processes, deadlock can occur
2277 unless you are very careful. In addition, note that Perl's pipes use
2278 stdio buffering, so you may need to set C<$|> to flush your WRITEHANDLE
2279 after each command, depending on the application.
2281 See L<IPC::Open2>, L<IPC::Open3>, and L<perlipc/"Bidirectional Communication">
2282 for examples of such things.
2288 Pops and returns the last value of the array, shortening the array by
2289 1. Has a similar effect to
2291 $tmp = $ARRAY[$#ARRAY--];
2293 If there are no elements in the array, returns the undefined value.
2294 If ARRAY is omitted, pops the
2295 @ARGV array in the main program, and the @_ array in subroutines, just
2302 Returns the offset of where the last C<m//g> search left off for the variable
2303 is in question ($_ is used when the variable is not specified). May be
2304 modified to change that offset. Such modification will also influence
2305 the C<\G> zero-width assertion in regular expressions. See L<perlre> and
2308 =item print FILEHANDLE LIST
2314 Prints a string or a comma-separated list of strings. Returns TRUE
2315 if successful. FILEHANDLE may be a scalar variable name, in which case
2316 the variable contains the name of or a reference to the filehandle, thus introducing one
2317 level of indirection. (NOTE: If FILEHANDLE is a variable and the next
2318 token is a term, it may be misinterpreted as an operator unless you
2319 interpose a + or put parentheses around the arguments.) If FILEHANDLE is
2320 omitted, prints by default to standard output (or to the last selected
2321 output channel--see L</select>). If LIST is also omitted, prints $_ to
2322 STDOUT. To set the default output channel to something other than
2323 STDOUT use the select operation. Note that, because print takes a
2324 LIST, anything in the LIST is evaluated in a list context, and any
2325 subroutine that you call will have one or more of its expressions
2326 evaluated in a list context. Also be careful not to follow the print
2327 keyword with a left parenthesis unless you want the corresponding right
2328 parenthesis to terminate the arguments to the print--interpose a + or
2329 put parentheses around all the arguments.
2331 Note that if you're storing FILEHANDLES in an array or other expression,
2332 you will have to use a block returning its value instead:
2334 print { $files[$i] } "stuff\n";
2335 print { $OK ? STDOUT : STDERR } "stuff\n";
2337 =item printf FILEHANDLE FORMAT, LIST
2339 =item printf FORMAT, LIST
2341 Equivalent to C<print FILEHANDLE sprintf(FORMAT, LIST)>. The first argument
2342 of the list will be interpreted as the printf format. If C<use locale> is
2343 in effect, the character used for the decimal point in formatted real numbers
2344 is affected by the LC_NUMERIC locale. See L<perllocale>.
2346 Don't fall into the trap of using a printf() when a simple
2347 print() would do. The print() is more efficient, and less
2350 =item prototype FUNCTION
2352 Returns the prototype of a function as a string (or C<undef> if the
2353 function has no prototype). FUNCTION is a reference to, or the name of,
2354 the function whose prototype you want to retrieve.
2356 =item push ARRAY,LIST
2358 Treats ARRAY as a stack, and pushes the values of LIST
2359 onto the end of ARRAY. The length of ARRAY increases by the length of
2360 LIST. Has the same effect as
2363 $ARRAY[++$#ARRAY] = $value;
2366 but is more efficient. Returns the new number of elements in the array.
2376 Generalized quotes. See L<perlop>.
2378 =item quotemeta EXPR
2382 Returns the value of EXPR with all non-alphanumeric
2383 characters backslashed. (That is, all characters not matching
2384 C</[A-Za-z_0-9]/> will be preceded by a backslash in the
2385 returned string, regardless of any locale settings.)
2386 This is the internal function implementing
2387 the \Q escape in double-quoted strings.
2389 If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
2395 Returns a random fractional number greater than or equal to 0 and less
2396 than the value of EXPR. (EXPR should be positive.) If EXPR is
2397 omitted, the value 1 is used. Automatically calls srand() unless
2398 srand() has already been called. See also srand().
2400 (Note: If your rand function consistently returns numbers that are too
2401 large or too small, then your version of Perl was probably compiled
2402 with the wrong number of RANDBITS.)
2404 =item read FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH,OFFSET
2406 =item read FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH
2408 Attempts to read LENGTH bytes of data into variable SCALAR from the
2409 specified FILEHANDLE. Returns the number of bytes actually read, or
2410 undef if there was an error. SCALAR will be grown or shrunk to the
2411 length actually read. An OFFSET may be specified to place the read
2412 data at some other place than the beginning of the string. This call
2413 is actually implemented in terms of stdio's fread call. To get a true
2414 read system call, see sysread().
2416 =item readdir DIRHANDLE
2418 Returns the next directory entry for a directory opened by opendir().
2419 If used in a list context, returns all the rest of the entries in the
2420 directory. If there are no more entries, returns an undefined value in
2421 a scalar context or a null list in a list context.
2423 If you're planning to filetest the return values out of a readdir(), you'd
2424 better prepend the directory in question. Otherwise, because we didn't
2425 chdir() there, it would have been testing the wrong file.
2427 opendir(DIR, $some_dir) || die "can't opendir $some_dir: $!";
2428 @dots = grep { /^\./ && -f "$some_dir/$_" } readdir(DIR);
2433 Reads from the file handle EXPR. In scalar context, a single line
2434 is read and returned. In list context, reads until end-of-file is
2435 reached and returns a list of lines (however you've defined lines
2436 with $/ or $INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR).
2437 This is the internal function implementing the C<E<lt>EXPRE<gt>>
2438 operator, but you can use it directly. The C<E<lt>EXPRE<gt>>
2439 operator is discussed in more detail in L<perlop/"I/O Operators">.
2445 Returns the value of a symbolic link, if symbolic links are
2446 implemented. If not, gives a fatal error. If there is some system
2447 error, returns the undefined value and sets C<$!> (errno). If EXPR is
2452 EXPR is interpolated and then executed as a system command.
2453 The collected standard output of the command is returned.
2454 In scalar context, it comes back as a single (potentially
2455 multi-line) string. In list context, returns a list of lines
2456 (however you've defined lines with $/ or $INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR).
2457 This is the internal function implementing the C<qx/EXPR/>
2458 operator, but you can use it directly. The C<qx/EXPR/>
2459 operator is discussed in more detail in L<perlop/"I/O Operators">.
2461 =item recv SOCKET,SCALAR,LEN,FLAGS
2463 Receives a message on a socket. Attempts to receive LENGTH bytes of
2464 data into variable SCALAR from the specified SOCKET filehandle.
2465 Actually does a C recvfrom(), so that it can returns the address of the
2466 sender. Returns the undefined value if there's an error. SCALAR will
2467 be grown or shrunk to the length actually read. Takes the same flags
2468 as the system call of the same name.
2469 See L<perlipc/"UDP: Message Passing"> for examples.
2475 The C<redo> command restarts the loop block without evaluating the
2476 conditional again. The C<continue> block, if any, is not executed. If
2477 the LABEL is omitted, the command refers to the innermost enclosing
2478 loop. This command is normally used by programs that want to lie to
2479 themselves about what was just input:
2481 # a simpleminded Pascal comment stripper
2482 # (warning: assumes no { or } in strings)
2483 LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
2484 while (s|({.*}.*){.*}|$1 |) {}
2489 if (/}/) { # end of comment?
2502 Returns a TRUE value if EXPR is a reference, FALSE otherwise. If EXPR
2503 is not specified, $_ will be used. The value returned depends on the
2504 type of thing the reference is a reference to.
2505 Builtin types include:
2514 If the referenced object has been blessed into a package, then that package
2515 name is returned instead. You can think of ref() as a typeof() operator.
2517 if (ref($r) eq "HASH") {
2518 print "r is a reference to a hash.\n";
2521 print "r is not a reference at all.\n";
2524 See also L<perlref>.
2526 =item rename OLDNAME,NEWNAME
2528 Changes the name of a file. Returns 1 for success, 0 otherwise. Will
2529 not work across file system boundaries.
2535 Demands some semantics specified by EXPR, or by $_ if EXPR is not
2536 supplied. If EXPR is numeric, demands that the current version of Perl
2537 (C<$]> or $PERL_VERSION) be equal or greater than EXPR.
2539 Otherwise, demands that a library file be included if it hasn't already
2540 been included. The file is included via the do-FILE mechanism, which is
2541 essentially just a variety of eval(). Has semantics similar to the following
2545 local($filename) = @_;
2546 return 1 if $INC{$filename};
2547 local($realfilename,$result);
2549 foreach $prefix (@INC) {
2550 $realfilename = "$prefix/$filename";
2551 if (-f $realfilename) {
2552 $result = do $realfilename;
2556 die "Can't find $filename in \@INC";
2559 die "$filename did not return true value" unless $result;
2560 $INC{$filename} = $realfilename;
2564 Note that the file will not be included twice under the same specified
2565 name. The file must return TRUE as the last statement to indicate
2566 successful execution of any initialization code, so it's customary to
2567 end such a file with "1;" unless you're sure it'll return TRUE
2568 otherwise. But it's better just to put the "C<1;>", in case you add more
2571 If EXPR is a bareword, the require assumes a "F<.pm>" extension and
2572 replaces "F<::>" with "F</>" in the filename for you,
2573 to make it easy to load standard modules. This form of loading of
2574 modules does not risk altering your namespace.
2576 For a yet-more-powerful import facility, see L</use> and
2583 Generally used in a C<continue> block at the end of a loop to clear
2584 variables and reset ?? searches so that they work again. The
2585 expression is interpreted as a list of single characters (hyphens
2586 allowed for ranges). All variables and arrays beginning with one of
2587 those letters are reset to their pristine state. If the expression is
2588 omitted, one-match searches (?pattern?) are reset to match again. Resets
2589 only variables or searches in the current package. Always returns
2592 reset 'X'; # reset all X variables
2593 reset 'a-z'; # reset lower case variables
2594 reset; # just reset ?? searches
2596 Resetting "A-Z" is not recommended because you'll wipe out your
2597 ARGV and ENV arrays. Resets only package variables--lexical variables
2598 are unaffected, but they clean themselves up on scope exit anyway,
2599 so you'll probably want to use them instead. See L</my>.
2605 Returns from a subroutine, eval(), or do FILE with the value of the
2606 given EXPR. Evaluation of EXPR may be in a list, scalar, or void
2607 context, depending on how the return value will be used, and the context
2608 may vary from one execution to the next (see wantarray()). If no EXPR
2609 is given, returns an empty list in a list context, an undefined value in
2610 a scalar context, or nothing in a void context.
2612 (Note that in the absence of a return, a subroutine, eval, or do FILE
2613 will automatically return the value of the last expression evaluated.)
2617 In a list context, returns a list value consisting of the elements
2618 of LIST in the opposite order. In a scalar context, concatenates the
2619 elements of LIST, and returns a string value consisting of those bytes,
2620 but in the opposite order.
2622 print reverse <>; # line tac, last line first
2624 undef $/; # for efficiency of <>
2625 print scalar reverse <>; # byte tac, last line tsrif
2627 This operator is also handy for inverting a hash, although there are some
2628 caveats. If a value is duplicated in the original hash, only one of those
2629 can be represented as a key in the inverted hash. Also, this has to
2630 unwind one hash and build a whole new one, which may take some time
2633 %by_name = reverse %by_address; # Invert the hash
2635 =item rewinddir DIRHANDLE
2637 Sets the current position to the beginning of the directory for the
2638 readdir() routine on DIRHANDLE.
2640 =item rindex STR,SUBSTR,POSITION
2642 =item rindex STR,SUBSTR
2644 Works just like index except that it returns the position of the LAST
2645 occurrence of SUBSTR in STR. If POSITION is specified, returns the
2646 last occurrence at or before that position.
2648 =item rmdir FILENAME
2652 Deletes the directory specified by FILENAME if it is empty. If it
2653 succeeds it returns 1, otherwise it returns 0 and sets C<$!> (errno). If
2654 FILENAME is omitted, uses $_.
2658 The substitution operator. See L<perlop>.
2662 Forces EXPR to be interpreted in a scalar context and returns the value
2665 @counts = ( scalar @a, scalar @b, scalar @c );
2667 There is no equivalent operator to force an expression to
2668 be interpolated in a list context because it's in practice never
2669 needed. If you really wanted to do so, however, you could use
2670 the construction C<@{[ (some expression) ]}>, but usually a simple
2671 C<(some expression)> suffices.
2673 =item seek FILEHANDLE,POSITION,WHENCE
2675 Sets FILEHANDLE's position, just like the fseek() call of stdio.
2676 FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name of the
2677 filehandle. The values for WHENCE are 0 to set the new position to
2678 POSITION, 1 to set it to the current position plus POSITION, and 2 to
2679 set it to EOF plus POSITION (typically negative). For WHENCE you may
2680 use the constants SEEK_SET, SEEK_CUR, and SEEK_END from either the
2681 IO::Seekable or the POSIX module. Returns 1 upon success, 0 otherwise.
2683 If you want to position file for sysread() or syswrite(), don't use
2684 seek() -- buffering makes its effect on the file's system position
2685 unpredictable and non-portable. Use sysseek() instead.
2687 On some systems you have to do a seek whenever you switch between reading
2688 and writing. Amongst other things, this may have the effect of calling
2689 stdio's clearerr(3). A WHENCE of 1 (SEEK_CUR) is useful for not moving
2694 This is also useful for applications emulating C<tail -f>. Once you hit
2695 EOF on your read, and then sleep for a while, you might have to stick in a
2696 seek() to reset things. The seek() doesn't change the current position,
2697 but it I<does> clear the end-of-file condition on the handle, so that the
2698 next C<E<lt>FILEE<gt>> makes Perl try again to read something. We hope.
2700 If that doesn't work (some stdios are particularly cantankerous), then
2701 you may need something more like this:
2704 for ($curpos = tell(FILE); $_ = <FILE>; $curpos = tell(FILE)) {
2705 # search for some stuff and put it into files
2707 sleep($for_a_while);
2708 seek(FILE, $curpos, 0);
2711 =item seekdir DIRHANDLE,POS
2713 Sets the current position for the readdir() routine on DIRHANDLE. POS
2714 must be a value returned by telldir(). Has the same caveats about
2715 possible directory compaction as the corresponding system library
2718 =item select FILEHANDLE
2722 Returns the currently selected filehandle. Sets the current default
2723 filehandle for output, if FILEHANDLE is supplied. This has two
2724 effects: first, a C<write> or a C<print> without a filehandle will
2725 default to this FILEHANDLE. Second, references to variables related to
2726 output will refer to this output channel. For example, if you have to
2727 set the top of form format for more than one output channel, you might
2735 FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name of the
2736 actual filehandle. Thus:
2738 $oldfh = select(STDERR); $| = 1; select($oldfh);
2740 Some programmers may prefer to think of filehandles as objects with
2741 methods, preferring to write the last example as:
2744 STDERR->autoflush(1);
2746 =item select RBITS,WBITS,EBITS,TIMEOUT
2748 This calls the select(2) system call with the bit masks specified, which
2749 can be constructed using fileno() and vec(), along these lines:
2751 $rin = $win = $ein = '';
2752 vec($rin,fileno(STDIN),1) = 1;
2753 vec($win,fileno(STDOUT),1) = 1;
2756 If you want to select on many filehandles you might wish to write a
2760 local(@fhlist) = split(' ',$_[0]);
2763 vec($bits,fileno($_),1) = 1;
2767 $rin = fhbits('STDIN TTY SOCK');
2771 ($nfound,$timeleft) =
2772 select($rout=$rin, $wout=$win, $eout=$ein, $timeout);
2774 or to block until something becomes ready just do this
2776 $nfound = select($rout=$rin, $wout=$win, $eout=$ein, undef);
2778 Most systems do not bother to return anything useful in $timeleft, so
2779 calling select() in a scalar context just returns $nfound.
2781 Any of the bit masks can also be undef. The timeout, if specified, is
2782 in seconds, which may be fractional. Note: not all implementations are
2783 capable of returning the $timeleft. If not, they always return
2784 $timeleft equal to the supplied $timeout.
2786 You can effect a sleep of 250 milliseconds this way:
2788 select(undef, undef, undef, 0.25);
2790 B<WARNING>: Do not attempt to mix buffered I/O (like read() or E<lt>FHE<gt>)
2791 with select(). You have to use sysread() instead.
2793 =item semctl ID,SEMNUM,CMD,ARG
2795 Calls the System V IPC function semctl. If CMD is &IPC_STAT or
2796 &GETALL, then ARG must be a variable which will hold the returned
2797 semid_ds structure or semaphore value array. Returns like ioctl: the
2798 undefined value for error, "0 but true" for zero, or the actual return
2801 =item semget KEY,NSEMS,FLAGS
2803 Calls the System V IPC function semget. Returns the semaphore id, or
2804 the undefined value if there is an error.
2806 =item semop KEY,OPSTRING
2808 Calls the System V IPC function semop to perform semaphore operations
2809 such as signaling and waiting. OPSTRING must be a packed array of
2810 semop structures. Each semop structure can be generated with
2811 C<pack("sss", $semnum, $semop, $semflag)>. The number of semaphore
2812 operations is implied by the length of OPSTRING. Returns TRUE if
2813 successful, or FALSE if there is an error. As an example, the
2814 following code waits on semaphore $semnum of semaphore id $semid:
2816 $semop = pack("sss", $semnum, -1, 0);
2817 die "Semaphore trouble: $!\n" unless semop($semid, $semop);
2819 To signal the semaphore, replace "-1" with "1".
2821 =item send SOCKET,MSG,FLAGS,TO
2823 =item send SOCKET,MSG,FLAGS
2825 Sends a message on a socket. Takes the same flags as the system call
2826 of the same name. On unconnected sockets you must specify a
2827 destination to send TO, in which case it does a C sendto(). Returns
2828 the number of characters sent, or the undefined value if there is an
2830 See L<perlipc/"UDP: Message Passing"> for examples.
2832 =item setpgrp PID,PGRP
2834 Sets the current process group for the specified PID, 0 for the current
2835 process. Will produce a fatal error if used on a machine that doesn't
2836 implement setpgrp(2). If the arguments are omitted, it defaults to
2837 0,0. Note that the POSIX version of setpgrp() does not accept any
2838 arguments, so only setpgrp 0,0 is portable.
2840 =item setpriority WHICH,WHO,PRIORITY
2842 Sets the current priority for a process, a process group, or a user.
2843 (See setpriority(2).) Will produce a fatal error if used on a machine
2844 that doesn't implement setpriority(2).
2846 =item setsockopt SOCKET,LEVEL,OPTNAME,OPTVAL
2848 Sets the socket option requested. Returns undefined if there is an
2849 error. OPTVAL may be specified as undef if you don't want to pass an
2856 Shifts the first value of the array off and returns it, shortening the
2857 array by 1 and moving everything down. If there are no elements in the
2858 array, returns the undefined value. If ARRAY is omitted, shifts the
2859 @_ array within the lexical scope of subroutines and formats, and the
2860 @ARGV array at file scopes or within the lexical scopes established by
2861 the C<eval ''>, C<BEGIN {}>, C<END {}>, and C<INIT {}> constructs.
2862 See also unshift(), push(), and pop(). Shift() and unshift() do the
2863 same thing to the left end of an array that pop() and push() do to the
2866 =item shmctl ID,CMD,ARG
2868 Calls the System V IPC function shmctl. If CMD is &IPC_STAT, then ARG
2869 must be a variable which will hold the returned shmid_ds structure.
2870 Returns like ioctl: the undefined value for error, "0 but true" for
2871 zero, or the actual return value otherwise.
2873 =item shmget KEY,SIZE,FLAGS
2875 Calls the System V IPC function shmget. Returns the shared memory
2876 segment id, or the undefined value if there is an error.
2878 =item shmread ID,VAR,POS,SIZE
2880 =item shmwrite ID,STRING,POS,SIZE
2882 Reads or writes the System V shared memory segment ID starting at
2883 position POS for size SIZE by attaching to it, copying in/out, and
2884 detaching from it. When reading, VAR must be a variable which will
2885 hold the data read. When writing, if STRING is too long, only SIZE
2886 bytes are used; if STRING is too short, nulls are written to fill out
2887 SIZE bytes. Return TRUE if successful, or FALSE if there is an error.
2889 =item shutdown SOCKET,HOW
2891 Shuts down a socket connection in the manner indicated by HOW, which
2892 has the same interpretation as in the system call of the same name.
2898 Returns the sine of EXPR (expressed in radians). If EXPR is omitted,
2901 For the inverse sine operation, you may use the POSIX::asin()
2902 function, or use this relation:
2904 sub asin { atan2($_[0], sqrt(1 - $_[0] * $_[0])) }
2910 Causes the script to sleep for EXPR seconds, or forever if no EXPR.
2911 May be interrupted by sending the process a SIGALRM. Returns the
2912 number of seconds actually slept. You probably cannot mix alarm() and
2913 sleep() calls, because sleep() is often implemented using alarm().
2915 On some older systems, it may sleep up to a full second less than what
2916 you requested, depending on how it counts seconds. Most modern systems
2917 always sleep the full amount.
2919 For delays of finer granularity than one second, you may use Perl's
2920 syscall() interface to access setitimer(2) if your system supports it,
2921 or else see L</select()> below.
2923 See also the POSIX module's sigpause() function.
2925 =item socket SOCKET,DOMAIN,TYPE,PROTOCOL
2927 Opens a socket of the specified kind and attaches it to filehandle
2928 SOCKET. DOMAIN, TYPE, and PROTOCOL are specified the same as for the
2929 system call of the same name. You should "use Socket;" first to get
2930 the proper definitions imported. See the example in L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">.
2932 =item socketpair SOCKET1,SOCKET2,DOMAIN,TYPE,PROTOCOL
2934 Creates an unnamed pair of sockets in the specified domain, of the
2935 specified type. DOMAIN, TYPE, and PROTOCOL are specified the same as
2936 for the system call of the same name. If unimplemented, yields a fatal
2937 error. Returns TRUE if successful.
2939 =item sort SUBNAME LIST
2941 =item sort BLOCK LIST
2945 Sorts the LIST and returns the sorted list value. If SUBNAME or BLOCK
2946 is omitted, sorts in standard string comparison order. If SUBNAME is
2947 specified, it gives the name of a subroutine that returns an integer
2948 less than, equal to, or greater than 0, depending on how the elements
2949 of the array are to be ordered. (The C<E<lt>=E<gt>> and C<cmp>
2950 operators are extremely useful in such routines.) SUBNAME may be a
2951 scalar variable name, in which case the value provides the name of the
2952 subroutine to use. In place of a SUBNAME, you can provide a BLOCK as
2953 an anonymous, in-line sort subroutine.
2955 In the interests of efficiency the normal calling code for subroutines is
2956 bypassed, with the following effects: the subroutine may not be a
2957 recursive subroutine, and the two elements to be compared are passed into
2958 the subroutine not via @_ but as the package global variables $a and
2959 $b (see example below). They are passed by reference, so don't
2960 modify $a and $b. And don't try to declare them as lexicals either.
2962 You also cannot exit out of the sort block or subroutine using any of the
2963 loop control operators described in L<perlsyn> or with goto().
2965 When C<use locale> is in effect, C<sort LIST> sorts LIST according to the
2966 current collation locale. See L<perllocale>.
2971 @articles = sort @files;
2973 # same thing, but with explicit sort routine
2974 @articles = sort {$a cmp $b} @files;
2976 # now case-insensitively
2977 @articles = sort {uc($a) cmp uc($b)} @files;
2979 # same thing in reversed order
2980 @articles = sort {$b cmp $a} @files;
2982 # sort numerically ascending
2983 @articles = sort {$a <=> $b} @files;
2985 # sort numerically descending
2986 @articles = sort {$b <=> $a} @files;
2988 # sort using explicit subroutine name
2990 $age{$a} <=> $age{$b}; # presuming numeric
2992 @sortedclass = sort byage @class;
2994 # this sorts the %age hash by value instead of key
2995 # using an in-line function
2996 @eldest = sort { $age{$b} <=> $age{$a} } keys %age;
2998 sub backwards { $b cmp $a; }
2999 @harry = ('dog','cat','x','Cain','Abel');
3000 @george = ('gone','chased','yz','Punished','Axed');
3002 # prints AbelCaincatdogx
3003 print sort backwards @harry;
3004 # prints xdogcatCainAbel
3005 print sort @george, 'to', @harry;
3006 # prints AbelAxedCainPunishedcatchaseddoggonetoxyz
3008 # inefficiently sort by descending numeric compare using
3009 # the first integer after the first = sign, or the
3010 # whole record case-insensitively otherwise
3013 ($b =~ /=(\d+)/)[0] <=> ($a =~ /=(\d+)/)[0]
3018 # same thing, but much more efficiently;
3019 # we'll build auxiliary indices instead
3023 push @nums, /=(\d+)/;
3028 $nums[$b] <=> $nums[$a]
3030 $caps[$a] cmp $caps[$b]
3034 # same thing using a Schwartzian Transform (no temps)
3035 @new = map { $_->[0] }
3036 sort { $b->[1] <=> $a->[1]
3039 } map { [$_, /=(\d+)/, uc($_)] } @old;
3041 If you're using strict, you I<MUST NOT> declare $a
3042 and $b as lexicals. They are package globals. That means
3043 if you're in the C<main> package, it's
3045 @articles = sort {$main::b <=> $main::a} @files;
3049 @articles = sort {$::b <=> $::a} @files;
3051 but if you're in the C<FooPack> package, it's
3053 @articles = sort {$FooPack::b <=> $FooPack::a} @files;
3055 The comparison function is required to behave. If it returns
3056 inconsistent results (sometimes saying $x[1] is less than $x[2] and
3057 sometimes saying the opposite, for example) the Perl interpreter will
3058 probably crash and dump core. This is entirely due to and dependent
3059 upon your system's qsort(3) library routine; this routine often avoids
3060 sanity checks in the interest of speed.
3062 =item splice ARRAY,OFFSET,LENGTH,LIST
3064 =item splice ARRAY,OFFSET,LENGTH
3066 =item splice ARRAY,OFFSET
3068 Removes the elements designated by OFFSET and LENGTH from an array, and
3069 replaces them with the elements of LIST, if any. Returns the elements
3070 removed from the array. The array grows or shrinks as necessary. If
3071 LENGTH is omitted, removes everything from OFFSET onward. The
3072 following equivalences hold (assuming C<$[ == 0>):
3074 push(@a,$x,$y) splice(@a,$#a+1,0,$x,$y)
3075 pop(@a) splice(@a,-1)
3076 shift(@a) splice(@a,0,1)
3077 unshift(@a,$x,$y) splice(@a,0,0,$x,$y)
3078 $a[$x] = $y splice(@a,$x,1,$y);
3080 Example, assuming array lengths are passed before arrays:
3082 sub aeq { # compare two list values
3083 local(@a) = splice(@_,0,shift);
3084 local(@b) = splice(@_,0,shift);
3085 return 0 unless @a == @b; # same len?
3087 return 0 if pop(@a) ne pop(@b);
3091 if (&aeq($len,@foo[1..$len],0+@bar,@bar)) { ... }
3093 =item split /PATTERN/,EXPR,LIMIT
3095 =item split /PATTERN/,EXPR
3097 =item split /PATTERN/
3101 Splits a string into an array of strings, and returns it.
3103 If not in a list context, returns the number of fields found and splits into
3104 the @_ array. (In a list context, you can force the split into @_ by
3105 using C<??> as the pattern delimiters, but it still returns the array
3106 value.) The use of implicit split to @_ is deprecated, however.
3108 If EXPR is omitted, splits the $_ string. If PATTERN is also omitted,
3109 splits on whitespace (after skipping any leading whitespace). Anything
3110 matching PATTERN is taken to be a delimiter separating the fields. (Note
3111 that the delimiter may be longer than one character.)
3113 If LIMIT is specified and is not negative, splits into no more than
3114 that many fields (though it may split into fewer). If LIMIT is
3115 unspecified, trailing null fields are stripped (which potential users
3116 of pop() would do well to remember). If LIMIT is negative, it is
3117 treated as if an arbitrarily large LIMIT had been specified.
3119 A pattern matching the null string (not to be confused with
3120 a null pattern C<//>, which is just one member of the set of patterns
3121 matching a null string) will split the value of EXPR into separate
3122 characters at each point it matches that way. For example:
3124 print join(':', split(/ */, 'hi there'));
3126 produces the output 'h:i:t:h:e:r:e'.
3128 The LIMIT parameter can be used to split a line partially
3130 ($login, $passwd, $remainder) = split(/:/, $_, 3);
3132 When assigning to a list, if LIMIT is omitted, Perl supplies a LIMIT
3133 one larger than the number of variables in the list, to avoid
3134 unnecessary work. For the list above LIMIT would have been 4 by
3135 default. In time critical applications it behooves you not to split
3136 into more fields than you really need.
3138 If the PATTERN contains parentheses, additional array elements are
3139 created from each matching substring in the delimiter.
3141 split(/([,-])/, "1-10,20", 3);
3143 produces the list value
3145 (1, '-', 10, ',', 20)
3147 If you had the entire header of a normal Unix email message in $header,
3148 you could split it up into fields and their values this way:
3150 $header =~ s/\n\s+/ /g; # fix continuation lines
3151 %hdrs = (UNIX_FROM => split /^(\S*?):\s*/m, $header);
3153 The pattern C</PATTERN/> may be replaced with an expression to specify
3154 patterns that vary at runtime. (To do runtime compilation only once,
3155 use C</$variable/o>.)
3157 As a special case, specifying a PATTERN of space (C<' '>) will split on
3158 white space just as split with no arguments does. Thus, split(' ') can
3159 be used to emulate B<awk>'s default behavior, whereas C<split(/ /)>
3160 will give you as many null initial fields as there are leading spaces.
3161 A split on /\s+/ is like a split(' ') except that any leading
3162 whitespace produces a null first field. A split with no arguments
3163 really does a C<split(' ', $_)> internally.
3167 open(passwd, '/etc/passwd');
3169 ($login, $passwd, $uid, $gid, $gcos,
3170 $home, $shell) = split(/:/);
3174 (Note that $shell above will still have a newline on it. See L</chop>,
3175 L</chomp>, and L</join>.)
3177 =item sprintf FORMAT, LIST
3179 Returns a string formatted by the usual printf conventions of the
3180 C library function sprintf(). See L<sprintf(3)> or L<printf(3)>
3181 on your system for an explanation of the general principles.
3183 Perl does all of its own sprintf() formatting -- it emulates the C
3184 function sprintf(), but it doesn't use it (except for floating-point
3185 numbers, and even then only the standard modifiers are allowed). As a
3186 result, any non-standard extensions in your local sprintf() are not
3187 available from Perl.
3189 Perl's sprintf() permits the following universally-known conversions:
3192 %c a character with the given number
3194 %d a signed integer, in decimal
3195 %u an unsigned integer, in decimal
3196 %o an unsigned integer, in octal
3197 %x an unsigned integer, in hexadecimal
3198 %e a floating-point number, in scientific notation
3199 %f a floating-point number, in fixed decimal notation
3200 %g a floating-point number, in %e or %f notation
3202 In addition, Perl permits the following widely-supported conversions:
3204 %X like %x, but using upper-case letters
3205 %E like %e, but using an upper-case "E"
3206 %G like %g, but with an upper-case "E" (if applicable)
3207 %p a pointer (outputs the Perl value's address in hexadecimal)
3208 %n special: *stores* the number of characters output so far
3209 into the next variable in the parameter list
3211 Finally, for backward (and we do mean "backward") compatibility, Perl
3212 permits these unnecessary but widely-supported conversions:
3215 %D a synonym for %ld
3216 %U a synonym for %lu
3217 %O a synonym for %lo
3220 Perl permits the following universally-known flags between the C<%>
3221 and the conversion letter:
3223 space prefix positive number with a space
3224 + prefix positive number with a plus sign
3225 - left-justify within the field
3226 0 use zeros, not spaces, to right-justify
3227 # prefix octal with "0", hex with "0x"
3228 number minimum field width
3229 .number "precision": digits after decimal point for floating-point,
3230 max length for string, minimum length for integer
3231 l interpret integer as C type "long" or "unsigned long"
3232 h interpret integer as C type "short" or "unsigned short"
3234 There is also one Perl-specific flag:
3236 V interpret integer as Perl's standard integer type
3238 Where a number would appear in the flags, an asterisk ("*") may be
3239 used instead, in which case Perl uses the next item in the parameter
3240 list as the given number (that is, as the field width or precision).
3241 If a field width obtained through "*" is negative, it has the same
3242 effect as the '-' flag: left-justification.
3244 If C<use locale> is in effect, the character used for the decimal
3245 point in formatted real numbers is affected by the LC_NUMERIC locale.
3252 Return the square root of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, returns square
3259 Sets the random number seed for the C<rand> operator. If EXPR is
3260 omitted, uses a semi-random value based on the current time and process
3261 ID, among other things. In versions of Perl prior to 5.004 the default
3262 seed was just the current time(). This isn't a particularly good seed,
3263 so many old programs supply their own seed value (often C<time ^ $$> or
3264 C<time ^ ($$ + ($$ << 15))>), but that isn't necessary any more.
3266 In fact, it's usually not necessary to call srand() at all, because if
3267 it is not called explicitly, it is called implicitly at the first use of
3268 the C<rand> operator. However, this was not the case in version of Perl
3269 before 5.004, so if your script will run under older Perl versions, it
3270 should call srand().
3272 Note that you need something much more random than the default seed for
3273 cryptographic purposes. Checksumming the compressed output of one or more
3274 rapidly changing operating system status programs is the usual method. For
3277 srand (time ^ $$ ^ unpack "%L*", `ps axww | gzip`);
3279 If you're particularly concerned with this, see the Math::TrulyRandom
3282 Do I<not> call srand() multiple times in your program unless you know
3283 exactly what you're doing and why you're doing it. The point of the
3284 function is to "seed" the rand() function so that rand() can produce
3285 a different sequence each time you run your program. Just do it once at the
3286 top of your program, or you I<won't> get random numbers out of rand()!
3288 Frequently called programs (like CGI scripts) that simply use
3292 for a seed can fall prey to the mathematical property that
3296 one-third of the time. So don't do that.
3298 =item stat FILEHANDLE
3304 Returns a 13-element array giving the status info for a file, either the
3305 file opened via FILEHANDLE, or named by EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, it
3306 stats $_. Returns a null list if the stat fails. Typically used as
3310 ($dev,$ino,$mode,$nlink,$uid,$gid,$rdev,$size,
3311 $atime,$mtime,$ctime,$blksize,$blocks)
3314 Not all fields are supported on all filesystem types. Here are the
3315 meaning of the fields:
3317 0 dev device number of filesystem
3319 2 mode file mode (type and permissions)
3320 3 nlink number of (hard) links to the file
3321 4 uid numeric user ID of file's owner
3322 5 gid numeric group ID of file's owner
3323 6 rdev the device identifier (special files only)
3324 7 size total size of file, in bytes
3325 8 atime last access time since the epoch
3326 9 mtime last modify time since the epoch
3327 10 ctime inode change time (NOT creation time!) since the epoch
3328 11 blksize preferred block size for file system I/O
3329 12 blocks actual number of blocks allocated
3331 (The epoch was at 00:00 January 1, 1970 GMT.)
3333 If stat is passed the special filehandle consisting of an underline, no
3334 stat is done, but the current contents of the stat structure from the
3335 last stat or filetest are returned. Example:
3337 if (-x $file && (($d) = stat(_)) && $d < 0) {
3338 print "$file is executable NFS file\n";
3341 (This works on machines only for which the device number is negative under NFS.)
3347 Takes extra time to study SCALAR (C<$_> if unspecified) in anticipation of
3348 doing many pattern matches on the string before it is next modified.
3349 This may or may not save time, depending on the nature and number of
3350 patterns you are searching on, and on the distribution of character
3351 frequencies in the string to be searched -- you probably want to compare
3352 run times with and without it to see which runs faster. Those loops
3353 which scan for many short constant strings (including the constant
3354 parts of more complex patterns) will benefit most. You may have only
3355 one study active at a time -- if you study a different scalar the first
3356 is "unstudied". (The way study works is this: a linked list of every
3357 character in the string to be searched is made, so we know, for
3358 example, where all the 'k' characters are. From each search string,
3359 the rarest character is selected, based on some static frequency tables
3360 constructed from some C programs and English text. Only those places
3361 that contain this "rarest" character are examined.)
3363 For example, here is a loop which inserts index producing entries
3364 before any line containing a certain pattern:
3368 print ".IX foo\n" if /\bfoo\b/;
3369 print ".IX bar\n" if /\bbar\b/;
3370 print ".IX blurfl\n" if /\bblurfl\b/;
3375 In searching for /\bfoo\b/, only those locations in $_ that contain "f"
3376 will be looked at, because "f" is rarer than "o". In general, this is
3377 a big win except in pathological cases. The only question is whether
3378 it saves you more time than it took to build the linked list in the
3381 Note that if you have to look for strings that you don't know till
3382 runtime, you can build an entire loop as a string and eval that to
3383 avoid recompiling all your patterns all the time. Together with
3384 undefining $/ to input entire files as one record, this can be very
3385 fast, often faster than specialized programs like fgrep(1). The following
3386 scans a list of files (C<@files>) for a list of words (C<@words>), and prints
3387 out the names of those files that contain a match:
3389 $search = 'while (<>) { study;';
3390 foreach $word (@words) {
3391 $search .= "++\$seen{\$ARGV} if /\\b$word\\b/;\n";
3396 eval $search; # this screams
3397 $/ = "\n"; # put back to normal input delimiter
3398 foreach $file (sort keys(%seen)) {
3406 =item sub NAME BLOCK
3408 This is subroutine definition, not a real function I<per se>. With just a
3409 NAME (and possibly prototypes), it's just a forward declaration. Without
3410 a NAME, it's an anonymous function declaration, and does actually return a
3411 value: the CODE ref of the closure you just created. See L<perlsub> and
3412 L<perlref> for details.
3414 =item substr EXPR,OFFSET,LEN
3416 =item substr EXPR,OFFSET
3418 Extracts a substring out of EXPR and returns it. First character is at
3419 offset 0, or whatever you've set C<$[> to (but don't do that).
3420 If OFFSET is negative (or more precisely, less than C<$[>), starts
3421 that far from the end of the string. If LEN is omitted, returns
3422 everything to the end of the string. If LEN is negative, leaves that
3423 many characters off the end of the string.
3425 If you specify a substring which is partly outside the string, the part
3426 within the string is returned. If the substring is totally outside
3427 the string a warning is produced.
3429 You can use the substr() function
3430 as an lvalue, in which case EXPR must be an lvalue. If you assign
3431 something shorter than LEN, the string will shrink, and if you assign
3432 something longer than LEN, the string will grow to accommodate it. To
3433 keep the string the same length you may need to pad or chop your value
3436 =item symlink OLDFILE,NEWFILE
3438 Creates a new filename symbolically linked to the old filename.
3439 Returns 1 for success, 0 otherwise. On systems that don't support
3440 symbolic links, produces a fatal error at run time. To check for that,
3443 $symlink_exists = (eval {symlink("","")};, $@ eq '');
3447 Calls the system call specified as the first element of the list,
3448 passing the remaining elements as arguments to the system call. If
3449 unimplemented, produces a fatal error. The arguments are interpreted
3450 as follows: if a given argument is numeric, the argument is passed as
3451 an int. If not, the pointer to the string value is passed. You are
3452 responsible to make sure a string is pre-extended long enough to
3453 receive any result that might be written into a string. If your
3454 integer arguments are not literals and have never been interpreted in a
3455 numeric context, you may need to add 0 to them to force them to look
3458 require 'syscall.ph'; # may need to run h2ph
3459 syscall(&SYS_write, fileno(STDOUT), "hi there\n", 9);
3461 Note that Perl supports passing of up to only 14 arguments to your system call,
3462 which in practice should usually suffice.
3464 Syscall returns whatever value returned by the system call it calls.
3465 If the system call fails, syscall returns -1 and sets C<$!> (errno).
3466 Note that some system calls can legitimately return -1. The proper
3467 way to handle such calls is to assign C<$!=0;> before the call and
3468 check the value of <$!> if syscall returns -1.
3470 There's a problem with C<syscall(&SYS_pipe)>: it returns the file
3471 number of the read end of the pipe it creates. There is no way
3472 to retrieve the file number of the other end. You can avoid this
3473 problem by using C<pipe> instead.
3475 =item sysopen FILEHANDLE,FILENAME,MODE
3477 =item sysopen FILEHANDLE,FILENAME,MODE,PERMS
3479 Opens the file whose filename is given by FILENAME, and associates it
3480 with FILEHANDLE. If FILEHANDLE is an expression, its value is used as
3481 the name of the real filehandle wanted. This function calls the
3482 underlying operating system's C<open> function with the parameters
3483 FILENAME, MODE, PERMS.
3485 The possible values and flag bits of the MODE parameter are
3486 system-dependent; they are available via the standard module C<Fcntl>.
3487 However, for historical reasons, some values are universal: zero means
3488 read-only, one means write-only, and two means read/write.
3490 If the file named by FILENAME does not exist and the C<open> call
3491 creates it (typically because MODE includes the O_CREAT flag), then
3492 the value of PERMS specifies the permissions of the newly created
3493 file. If PERMS is omitted, the default value is 0666, which allows
3494 read and write for all. This default is reasonable: see C<umask>.
3496 The IO::File module provides a more object-oriented approach, if you're
3497 into that kind of thing.
3499 =item sysread FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH,OFFSET
3501 =item sysread FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH
3503 Attempts to read LENGTH bytes of data into variable SCALAR from the
3504 specified FILEHANDLE, using the system call read(2). It bypasses
3505 stdio, so mixing this with other kinds of reads, print(), write(),
3506 seek(), or tell() can cause confusion because stdio usually buffers
3507 data. Returns the number of bytes actually read, or undef if there
3508 was an error. SCALAR will be grown or shrunk so that the last byte
3509 actually read is the last byte of the scalar after the read.
3511 An OFFSET may be specified to place the read data at some place in the
3512 string other than the beginning. A negative OFFSET specifies
3513 placement at that many bytes counting backwards from the end of the
3514 string. A positive OFFSET greater than the length of SCALAR results
3515 in the string being padded to the required size with "\0" bytes before
3516 the result of the read is appended.
3518 =item sysseek FILEHANDLE,POSITION,WHENCE
3520 Sets FILEHANDLE's system position using the system call lseek(2). It
3521 bypasses stdio, so mixing this with reads (other than sysread()),
3522 print(), write(), seek(), or tell() may cause confusion. FILEHANDLE may
3523 be an expression whose value gives the name of the filehandle. The
3524 values for WHENCE are 0 to set the new position to POSITION, 1 to set
3525 the it to the current position plus POSITION, and 2 to set it to EOF
3526 plus POSITION (typically negative). For WHENCE, you may use the
3527 constants SEEK_SET, SEEK_CUR, and SEEK_END from either the IO::Seekable
3528 or the POSIX module.
3530 Returns the new position, or the undefined value on failure. A position
3531 of zero is returned as the string "0 but true"; thus sysseek() returns
3532 TRUE on success and FALSE on failure, yet you can still easily determine
3537 Does exactly the same thing as "exec LIST" except that a fork is done
3538 first, and the parent process waits for the child process to complete.
3539 Note that argument processing varies depending on the number of
3540 arguments. The return value is the exit status of the program as
3541 returned by the wait() call. To get the actual exit value divide by
3542 256. See also L</exec>. This is I<NOT> what you want to use to capture
3543 the output from a command, for that you should use merely backticks or
3544 qx//, as described in L<perlop/"`STRING`">.
3546 Because system() and backticks block SIGINT and SIGQUIT, killing the
3547 program they're running doesn't actually interrupt your program.
3549 @args = ("command", "arg1", "arg2");
3551 or die "system @args failed: $?"
3553 Here's a more elaborate example of analysing the return value from
3554 system() on a Unix system to check for all possibilities, including for
3555 signals and core dumps.
3557 $rc = 0xffff & system @args;
3558 printf "system(%s) returned %#04x: ", "@args", $rc;
3560 print "ran with normal exit\n";
3562 elsif ($rc == 0xff00) {
3563 print "command failed: $!\n";
3565 elsif ($rc > 0x80) {
3567 print "ran with non-zero exit status $rc\n";
3573 print "core dump from ";
3575 print "signal $rc\n"
3579 When the arguments get executed via the system shell, results will
3580 be subject to its quirks and capabilities. See L<perlop/"`STRING`">
3583 =item syswrite FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH,OFFSET
3585 =item syswrite FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH
3587 Attempts to write LENGTH bytes of data from variable SCALAR to the
3588 specified FILEHANDLE, using the system call write(2). It bypasses
3589 stdio, so mixing this with reads (other than sysread()), print(),
3590 write(), seek(), or tell() may cause confusion because stdio usually
3591 buffers data. Returns the number of bytes actually written, or undef
3592 if there was an error. If the LENGTH is greater than the available
3593 data in the SCALAR after the OFFSET, only as much data as is available
3596 An OFFSET may be specified to write the data from some part of the
3597 string other than the beginning. A negative OFFSET specifies writing
3598 that many bytes counting backwards from the end of the string. In the
3599 case the SCALAR is empty you can use OFFSET but only zero offset.
3601 =item tell FILEHANDLE
3605 Returns the current position for FILEHANDLE. FILEHANDLE may be an
3606 expression whose value gives the name of the actual filehandle. If
3607 FILEHANDLE is omitted, assumes the file last read.
3609 =item telldir DIRHANDLE
3611 Returns the current position of the readdir() routines on DIRHANDLE.
3612 Value may be given to seekdir() to access a particular location in a
3613 directory. Has the same caveats about possible directory compaction as
3614 the corresponding system library routine.
3616 =item tie VARIABLE,CLASSNAME,LIST
3618 This function binds a variable to a package class that will provide the
3619 implementation for the variable. VARIABLE is the name of the variable
3620 to be enchanted. CLASSNAME is the name of a class implementing objects
3621 of correct type. Any additional arguments are passed to the "new"
3622 method of the class (meaning TIESCALAR, TIEARRAY, or TIEHASH).
3623 Typically these are arguments such as might be passed to the dbm_open()
3624 function of C. The object returned by the "new" method is also
3625 returned by the tie() function, which would be useful if you want to
3626 access other methods in CLASSNAME.
3628 Note that functions such as keys() and values() may return huge array
3629 values when used on large objects, like DBM files. You may prefer to
3630 use the each() function to iterate over such. Example:
3632 # print out history file offsets
3634 tie(%HIST, 'NDBM_File', '/usr/lib/news/history', 1, 0);
3635 while (($key,$val) = each %HIST) {
3636 print $key, ' = ', unpack('L',$val), "\n";
3640 A class implementing a hash should have the following methods:
3642 TIEHASH classname, LIST
3645 STORE this, key, value
3649 NEXTKEY this, lastkey
3651 A class implementing an ordinary array should have the following methods:
3653 TIEARRAY classname, LIST
3656 STORE this, key, value
3659 A class implementing a scalar should have the following methods:
3661 TIESCALAR classname, LIST
3666 Unlike dbmopen(), the tie() function will not use or require a module
3667 for you--you need to do that explicitly yourself. See L<DB_File>
3668 or the F<Config> module for interesting tie() implementations.
3672 Returns a reference to the object underlying VARIABLE (the same value
3673 that was originally returned by the tie() call which bound the variable
3674 to a package.) Returns the undefined value if VARIABLE isn't tied to a
3679 Returns the number of non-leap seconds since whatever time the system
3680 considers to be the epoch (that's 00:00:00, January 1, 1904 for MacOS,
3681 and 00:00:00 UTC, January 1, 1970 for most other systems).
3682 Suitable for feeding to gmtime() and localtime().
3686 Returns a four-element array giving the user and system times, in
3687 seconds, for this process and the children of this process.
3689 ($user,$system,$cuser,$csystem) = times;
3693 The translation operator. Same as y///. See L<perlop>.
3695 =item truncate FILEHANDLE,LENGTH
3697 =item truncate EXPR,LENGTH
3699 Truncates the file opened on FILEHANDLE, or named by EXPR, to the
3700 specified length. Produces a fatal error if truncate isn't implemented
3707 Returns an uppercased version of EXPR. This is the internal function
3708 implementing the \U escape in double-quoted strings.
3709 Respects current LC_CTYPE locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale>.
3711 If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
3717 Returns the value of EXPR with the first character uppercased. This is
3718 the internal function implementing the \u escape in double-quoted strings.
3719 Respects current LC_CTYPE locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale>.
3721 If EXPR is omitted, uses $_.
3727 Sets the umask for the process to EXPR and returns the previous value.
3728 If EXPR is omitted, merely returns the current umask. Remember that a
3729 umask is a number, usually given in octal; it is I<not> a string of octal
3730 digits. See also L</oct>, if all you have is a string.
3736 Undefines the value of EXPR, which must be an lvalue. Use only on a
3737 scalar value, an entire array, an entire hash, or a subroutine name (using
3738 "&"). (Using undef() will probably not do what you expect on most
3739 predefined variables or DBM list values, so don't do that.) Always
3740 returns the undefined value. You can omit the EXPR, in which case
3741 nothing is undefined, but you still get an undefined value that you
3742 could, for instance, return from a subroutine, assign to a variable or
3743 pass as a parameter. Examples:
3746 undef $bar{'blurfl'}; # Compare to: delete $bar{'blurfl'};
3750 return (wantarray ? (undef, $errmsg) : undef) if $they_blew_it;
3751 select undef, undef, undef, 0.25;
3752 ($a, $b, undef, $c) = &foo; # Ignore third value returned
3758 Deletes a list of files. Returns the number of files successfully
3761 $cnt = unlink 'a', 'b', 'c';
3765 Note: unlink will not delete directories unless you are superuser and
3766 the B<-U> flag is supplied to Perl. Even if these conditions are
3767 met, be warned that unlinking a directory can inflict damage on your
3768 filesystem. Use rmdir instead.
3770 If LIST is omitted, uses $_.
3772 =item unpack TEMPLATE,EXPR
3774 Unpack does the reverse of pack: it takes a string representing a
3775 structure and expands it out into a list value, returning the array
3776 value. (In a scalar context, it returns merely the first value
3777 produced.) The TEMPLATE has the same format as in the pack function.
3778 Here's a subroutine that does substring:
3781 local($what,$where,$howmuch) = @_;
3782 unpack("x$where a$howmuch", $what);
3787 sub ordinal { unpack("c",$_[0]); } # same as ord()
3789 In addition, you may prefix a field with a %E<lt>numberE<gt> to indicate that
3790 you want a E<lt>numberE<gt>-bit checksum of the items instead of the items
3791 themselves. Default is a 16-bit checksum. For example, the following
3792 computes the same number as the System V sum program:
3795 $checksum += unpack("%16C*", $_);
3799 The following efficiently counts the number of set bits in a bit vector:
3801 $setbits = unpack("%32b*", $selectmask);
3803 =item untie VARIABLE
3805 Breaks the binding between a variable and a package. (See tie().)
3807 =item unshift ARRAY,LIST
3809 Does the opposite of a C<shift>. Or the opposite of a C<push>,
3810 depending on how you look at it. Prepends list to the front of the
3811 array, and returns the new number of elements in the array.
3813 unshift(ARGV, '-e') unless $ARGV[0] =~ /^-/;
3815 Note the LIST is prepended whole, not one element at a time, so the
3816 prepended elements stay in the same order. Use reverse to do the
3819 =item use Module LIST
3823 =item use Module VERSION LIST
3827 Imports some semantics into the current package from the named module,
3828 generally by aliasing certain subroutine or variable names into your
3829 package. It is exactly equivalent to
3831 BEGIN { require Module; import Module LIST; }
3833 except that Module I<must> be a bareword.
3835 If the first argument to C<use> is a number, it is treated as a version
3836 number instead of a module name. If the version of the Perl interpreter
3837 is less than VERSION, then an error message is printed and Perl exits
3838 immediately. This is often useful if you need to check the current
3839 Perl version before C<use>ing library modules which have changed in
3840 incompatible ways from older versions of Perl. (We try not to do
3841 this more than we have to.)
3843 The BEGIN forces the require and import to happen at compile time. The
3844 require makes sure the module is loaded into memory if it hasn't been
3845 yet. The import is not a builtin--it's just an ordinary static method
3846 call into the "Module" package to tell the module to import the list of
3847 features back into the current package. The module can implement its
3848 import method any way it likes, though most modules just choose to
3849 derive their import method via inheritance from the Exporter class that
3850 is defined in the Exporter module. See L<Exporter>. If no import
3851 method can be found then the error is currently silently ignored. This
3852 may change to a fatal error in a future version.
3854 If you don't want your namespace altered, explicitly supply an empty list:
3858 That is exactly equivalent to
3860 BEGIN { require Module; }
3862 If the VERSION argument is present between Module and LIST, then the
3863 C<use> will call the VERSION method in class Module with the given
3864 version as an argument. The default VERSION method, inherited from
3865 the Universal class, croaks if the given version is larger than the
3866 value of the variable $Module::VERSION. (Note that there is not a
3867 comma after VERSION!)
3869 Because this is a wide-open interface, pragmas (compiler directives)
3870 are also implemented this way. Currently implemented pragmas are:
3874 use sigtrap qw(SEGV BUS);
3875 use strict qw(subs vars refs);
3876 use subs qw(afunc blurfl);
3878 These pseudo-modules import semantics into the current block scope, unlike
3879 ordinary modules, which import symbols into the current package (which are
3880 effective through the end of the file).
3882 There's a corresponding "no" command that unimports meanings imported
3883 by use, i.e., it calls C<unimport Module LIST> instead of C<import>.
3888 If no unimport method can be found the call fails with a fatal error.
3890 See L<perlmod> for a list of standard modules and pragmas.
3894 Changes the access and modification times on each file of a list of
3895 files. The first two elements of the list must be the NUMERICAL access
3896 and modification times, in that order. Returns the number of files
3897 successfully changed. The inode modification time of each file is set
3898 to the current time. Example of a "touch" command:
3902 utime $now, $now, @ARGV;
3906 Returns a normal array consisting of all the values of the named hash.
3907 (In a scalar context, returns the number of values.) The values are
3908 returned in an apparently random order, but it is the same order as either
3909 the keys() or each() function would produce on the same hash. As a side
3910 effect, it resets HASH's iterator. See also keys(), each(), and sort().
3912 =item vec EXPR,OFFSET,BITS
3914 Treats the string in EXPR as a vector of unsigned integers, and
3915 returns the value of the bit field specified by OFFSET. BITS specifies
3916 the number of bits that are reserved for each entry in the bit
3917 vector. This must be a power of two from 1 to 32. vec() may also be
3918 assigned to, in which case parentheses are needed to give the expression
3919 the correct precedence as in
3921 vec($image, $max_x * $x + $y, 8) = 3;
3923 Vectors created with vec() can also be manipulated with the logical
3924 operators |, &, and ^, which will assume a bit vector operation is
3925 desired when both operands are strings.
3927 To transform a bit vector into a string or array of 0's and 1's, use these:
3929 $bits = unpack("b*", $vector);
3930 @bits = split(//, unpack("b*", $vector));
3932 If you know the exact length in bits, it can be used in place of the *.
3936 Waits for a child process to terminate and returns the pid of the
3937 deceased process, or -1 if there are no child processes. The status is
3940 =item waitpid PID,FLAGS
3942 Waits for a particular child process to terminate and returns the pid
3943 of the deceased process, or -1 if there is no such child process. The
3944 status is returned in C<$?>. If you say
3946 use POSIX ":sys_wait_h";
3948 waitpid(-1,&WNOHANG);
3950 then you can do a non-blocking wait for any process. Non-blocking wait
3951 is available on machines supporting either the waitpid(2) or
3952 wait4(2) system calls. However, waiting for a particular pid with
3953 FLAGS of 0 is implemented everywhere. (Perl emulates the system call
3954 by remembering the status values of processes that have exited but have
3955 not been harvested by the Perl script yet.)
3959 Returns TRUE if the context of the currently executing subroutine is
3960 looking for a list value. Returns FALSE if the context is looking
3961 for a scalar. Returns the undefined value if the context is looking
3962 for no value (void context).
3964 return unless defined wantarray; # don't bother doing more
3965 my @a = complex_calculation();
3966 return wantarray ? @a : "@a";
3970 Produces a message on STDERR just like die(), but doesn't exit or throw
3973 No message is printed if there is a C<$SIG{__WARN__}> handler
3974 installed. It is the handler's responsibility to deal with the message
3975 as it sees fit (like, for instance, converting it into a die()). Most
3976 handlers must therefore make arrangements to actually display the
3977 warnings that they are not prepared to deal with, by calling warn()
3978 again in the handler. Note that this is quite safe and will not
3979 produce an endless loop, since C<__WARN__> hooks are not called from
3982 You will find this behavior is slightly different from that of
3983 C<$SIG{__DIE__}> handlers (which don't suppress the error text, but can
3984 instead call die() again to change it).
3986 Using a C<__WARN__> handler provides a powerful way to silence all
3987 warnings (even the so-called mandatory ones). An example:
3989 # wipe out *all* compile-time warnings
3990 BEGIN { $SIG{'__WARN__'} = sub { warn $_[0] if $DOWARN } }
3992 my $foo = 20; # no warning about duplicate my $foo,
3993 # but hey, you asked for it!
3994 # no compile-time or run-time warnings before here
3997 # run-time warnings enabled after here
3998 warn "\$foo is alive and $foo!"; # does show up
4000 See L<perlvar> for details on setting C<%SIG> entries, and for more
4003 =item write FILEHANDLE
4009 Writes a formatted record (possibly multi-line) to the specified file,
4010 using the format associated with that file. By default the format for
4011 a file is the one having the same name as the filehandle, but the
4012 format for the current output channel (see the select() function) may be set
4013 explicitly by assigning the name of the format to the C<$~> variable.
4015 Top of form processing is handled automatically: if there is
4016 insufficient room on the current page for the formatted record, the
4017 page is advanced by writing a form feed, a special top-of-page format
4018 is used to format the new page header, and then the record is written.
4019 By default the top-of-page format is the name of the filehandle with
4020 "_TOP" appended, but it may be dynamically set to the format of your
4021 choice by assigning the name to the C<$^> variable while the filehandle is
4022 selected. The number of lines remaining on the current page is in
4023 variable C<$->, which can be set to 0 to force a new page.
4025 If FILEHANDLE is unspecified, output goes to the current default output
4026 channel, which starts out as STDOUT but may be changed by the
4027 C<select> operator. If the FILEHANDLE is an EXPR, then the expression
4028 is evaluated and the resulting string is used to look up the name of
4029 the FILEHANDLE at run time. For more on formats, see L<perlform>.
4031 Note that write is I<NOT> the opposite of read. Unfortunately.
4035 The translation operator. Same as tr///. See L<perlop>.