3 perlfunc - Perl builtin functions
7 The functions in this section can serve as terms in an expression.
8 They fall into two major categories: list operators and named unary
9 operators. These differ in their precedence relationship with a
10 following comma. (See the precedence table in L<perlop>.) List
11 operators take more than one argument, while unary operators can never
12 take more than one argument. Thus, a comma terminates the argument of
13 a unary operator, but merely separates the arguments of a list
14 operator. A unary operator generally provides a scalar context to its
15 argument, while a list operator may provide either scalar or list
16 contexts for its arguments. If it does both, the scalar arguments will
17 be first, and the list argument will follow. (Note that there can ever
18 be only one such list argument.) For instance, splice() has three scalar
19 arguments followed by a list, whereas gethostbyname() has four scalar
22 In the syntax descriptions that follow, list operators that expect a
23 list (and provide list context for the elements of the list) are shown
24 with LIST as an argument. Such a list may consist of any combination
25 of scalar arguments or list values; the list values will be included
26 in the list as if each individual element were interpolated at that
27 point in the list, forming a longer single-dimensional list value.
28 Elements of the LIST should be separated by commas.
30 Any function in the list below may be used either with or without
31 parentheses around its arguments. (The syntax descriptions omit the
32 parentheses.) If you use the parentheses, the simple (but occasionally
33 surprising) rule is this: It I<looks> like a function, therefore it I<is> a
34 function, and precedence doesn't matter. Otherwise it's a list
35 operator or unary operator, and precedence does matter. And whitespace
36 between the function and left parenthesis doesn't count--so you need to
39 print 1+2+4; # Prints 7.
40 print(1+2) + 4; # Prints 3.
41 print (1+2)+4; # Also prints 3!
42 print +(1+2)+4; # Prints 7.
43 print ((1+2)+4); # Prints 7.
45 If you run Perl with the B<-w> switch it can warn you about this. For
46 example, the third line above produces:
48 print (...) interpreted as function at - line 1.
49 Useless use of integer addition in void context at - line 1.
51 A few functions take no arguments at all, and therefore work as neither
52 unary nor list operators. These include such functions as C<time>
53 and C<endpwent>. For example, C<time+86_400> always means
56 For functions that can be used in either a scalar or list context,
57 nonabortive failure is generally indicated in a scalar context by
58 returning the undefined value, and in a list context by returning the
61 Remember the following important rule: There is B<no rule> that relates
62 the behavior of an expression in list context to its behavior in scalar
63 context, or vice versa. It might do two totally different things.
64 Each operator and function decides which sort of value it would be most
65 appropriate to return in scalar context. Some operators return the
66 length of the list that would have been returned in list context. Some
67 operators return the first value in the list. Some operators return the
68 last value in the list. Some operators return a count of successful
69 operations. In general, they do what you want, unless you want
72 A named array in scalar context is quite different from what would at
73 first glance appear to be a list in scalar context. You can't get a list
74 like C<(1,2,3)> into being in scalar context, because the compiler knows
75 the context at compile time. It would generate the scalar comma operator
76 there, not the list construction version of the comma. That means it
77 was never a list to start with.
79 In general, functions in Perl that serve as wrappers for system calls
80 of the same name (like chown(2), fork(2), closedir(2), etc.) all return
81 true when they succeed and C<undef> otherwise, as is usually mentioned
82 in the descriptions below. This is different from the C interfaces,
83 which return C<-1> on failure. Exceptions to this rule are C<wait>,
84 C<waitpid>, and C<syscall>. System calls also set the special C<$!>
85 variable on failure. Other functions do not, except accidentally.
87 =head2 Perl Functions by Category
89 Here are Perl's functions (including things that look like
90 functions, like some keywords and named operators)
91 arranged by category. Some functions appear in more
96 =item Functions for SCALARs or strings
98 C<chomp>, C<chop>, C<chr>, C<crypt>, C<hex>, C<index>, C<lc>, C<lcfirst>,
99 C<length>, C<oct>, C<ord>, C<pack>, C<q/STRING/>, C<qq/STRING/>, C<reverse>,
100 C<rindex>, C<sprintf>, C<substr>, C<tr///>, C<uc>, C<ucfirst>, C<y///>
102 =item Regular expressions and pattern matching
104 C<m//>, C<pos>, C<quotemeta>, C<s///>, C<split>, C<study>, C<qr//>
106 =item Numeric functions
108 C<abs>, C<atan2>, C<cos>, C<exp>, C<hex>, C<int>, C<log>, C<oct>, C<rand>,
109 C<sin>, C<sqrt>, C<srand>
111 =item Functions for real @ARRAYs
113 C<pop>, C<push>, C<shift>, C<splice>, C<unshift>
115 =item Functions for list data
117 C<grep>, C<join>, C<map>, C<qw/STRING/>, C<reverse>, C<sort>, C<unpack>
119 =item Functions for real %HASHes
121 C<delete>, C<each>, C<exists>, C<keys>, C<values>
123 =item Input and output functions
125 C<binmode>, C<close>, C<closedir>, C<dbmclose>, C<dbmopen>, C<die>, C<eof>,
126 C<fileno>, C<flock>, C<format>, C<getc>, C<print>, C<printf>, C<read>,
127 C<readdir>, C<rewinddir>, C<seek>, C<seekdir>, C<select>, C<syscall>,
128 C<sysread>, C<sysseek>, C<syswrite>, C<tell>, C<telldir>, C<truncate>,
131 =item Functions for fixed length data or records
133 C<pack>, C<read>, C<syscall>, C<sysread>, C<syswrite>, C<unpack>, C<vec>
135 =item Functions for filehandles, files, or directories
137 C<-I<X>>, C<chdir>, C<chmod>, C<chown>, C<chroot>, C<fcntl>, C<glob>,
138 C<ioctl>, C<link>, C<lstat>, C<mkdir>, C<open>, C<opendir>,
139 C<readlink>, C<rename>, C<rmdir>, C<stat>, C<symlink>, C<sysopen>,
140 C<umask>, C<unlink>, C<utime>
142 =item Keywords related to the control flow of your perl program
144 C<caller>, C<continue>, C<die>, C<do>, C<dump>, C<eval>, C<exit>,
145 C<goto>, C<last>, C<next>, C<redo>, C<return>, C<sub>, C<wantarray>
147 =item Keywords related to scoping
149 C<caller>, C<import>, C<local>, C<my>, C<our>, C<package>, C<use>
151 =item Miscellaneous functions
153 C<defined>, C<dump>, C<eval>, C<formline>, C<local>, C<my>, C<our>, C<reset>,
154 C<scalar>, C<undef>, C<wantarray>
156 =item Functions for processes and process groups
158 C<alarm>, C<exec>, C<fork>, C<getpgrp>, C<getppid>, C<getpriority>, C<kill>,
159 C<pipe>, C<qx/STRING/>, C<setpgrp>, C<setpriority>, C<sleep>, C<system>,
160 C<times>, C<wait>, C<waitpid>
162 =item Keywords related to perl modules
164 C<do>, C<import>, C<no>, C<package>, C<require>, C<use>
166 =item Keywords related to classes and object-orientedness
168 C<bless>, C<dbmclose>, C<dbmopen>, C<package>, C<ref>, C<tie>, C<tied>,
171 =item Low-level socket functions
173 C<accept>, C<bind>, C<connect>, C<getpeername>, C<getsockname>,
174 C<getsockopt>, C<listen>, C<recv>, C<send>, C<setsockopt>, C<shutdown>,
175 C<socket>, C<socketpair>
177 =item System V interprocess communication functions
179 C<msgctl>, C<msgget>, C<msgrcv>, C<msgsnd>, C<semctl>, C<semget>, C<semop>,
180 C<shmctl>, C<shmget>, C<shmread>, C<shmwrite>
182 =item Fetching user and group info
184 C<endgrent>, C<endhostent>, C<endnetent>, C<endpwent>, C<getgrent>,
185 C<getgrgid>, C<getgrnam>, C<getlogin>, C<getpwent>, C<getpwnam>,
186 C<getpwuid>, C<setgrent>, C<setpwent>
188 =item Fetching network info
190 C<endprotoent>, C<endservent>, C<gethostbyaddr>, C<gethostbyname>,
191 C<gethostent>, C<getnetbyaddr>, C<getnetbyname>, C<getnetent>,
192 C<getprotobyname>, C<getprotobynumber>, C<getprotoent>,
193 C<getservbyname>, C<getservbyport>, C<getservent>, C<sethostent>,
194 C<setnetent>, C<setprotoent>, C<setservent>
196 =item Time-related functions
198 C<gmtime>, C<localtime>, C<time>, C<times>
200 =item Functions new in perl5
202 C<abs>, C<bless>, C<chomp>, C<chr>, C<exists>, C<formline>, C<glob>,
203 C<import>, C<lc>, C<lcfirst>, C<map>, C<my>, C<no>, C<our>, C<prototype>,
204 C<qx>, C<qw>, C<readline>, C<readpipe>, C<ref>, C<sub*>, C<sysopen>, C<tie>,
205 C<tied>, C<uc>, C<ucfirst>, C<untie>, C<use>
207 * - C<sub> was a keyword in perl4, but in perl5 it is an
208 operator, which can be used in expressions.
210 =item Functions obsoleted in perl5
212 C<dbmclose>, C<dbmopen>
218 Perl was born in Unix and can therefore access all common Unix
219 system calls. In non-Unix environments, the functionality of some
220 Unix system calls may not be available, or details of the available
221 functionality may differ slightly. The Perl functions affected
224 C<-X>, C<binmode>, C<chmod>, C<chown>, C<chroot>, C<crypt>,
225 C<dbmclose>, C<dbmopen>, C<dump>, C<endgrent>, C<endhostent>,
226 C<endnetent>, C<endprotoent>, C<endpwent>, C<endservent>, C<exec>,
227 C<fcntl>, C<flock>, C<fork>, C<getgrent>, C<getgrgid>, C<gethostbyname>,
228 C<gethostent>, C<getlogin>, C<getnetbyaddr>, C<getnetbyname>, C<getnetent>,
229 C<getppid>, C<getprgp>, C<getpriority>, C<getprotobynumber>,
230 C<getprotoent>, C<getpwent>, C<getpwnam>, C<getpwuid>,
231 C<getservbyport>, C<getservent>, C<getsockopt>, C<glob>, C<ioctl>,
232 C<kill>, C<link>, C<lstat>, C<msgctl>, C<msgget>, C<msgrcv>,
233 C<msgsnd>, C<open>, C<pipe>, C<readlink>, C<rename>, C<select>, C<semctl>,
234 C<semget>, C<semop>, C<setgrent>, C<sethostent>, C<setnetent>,
235 C<setpgrp>, C<setpriority>, C<setprotoent>, C<setpwent>,
236 C<setservent>, C<setsockopt>, C<shmctl>, C<shmget>, C<shmread>,
237 C<shmwrite>, C<socket>, C<socketpair>,
238 C<stat>, C<symlink>, C<syscall>, C<sysopen>, C<system>,
239 C<times>, C<truncate>, C<umask>, C<unlink>,
240 C<utime>, C<wait>, C<waitpid>
242 For more information about the portability of these functions, see
243 L<perlport> and other available platform-specific documentation.
245 =head2 Alphabetical Listing of Perl Functions
255 A file test, where X is one of the letters listed below. This unary
256 operator takes one argument, either a filename or a filehandle, and
257 tests the associated file to see if something is true about it. If the
258 argument is omitted, tests C<$_>, except for C<-t>, which tests STDIN.
259 Unless otherwise documented, it returns C<1> for true and C<''> for false, or
260 the undefined value if the file doesn't exist. Despite the funny
261 names, precedence is the same as any other named unary operator, and
262 the argument may be parenthesized like any other unary operator. The
263 operator may be any of:
264 X<-r>X<-w>X<-x>X<-o>X<-R>X<-W>X<-X>X<-O>X<-e>X<-z>X<-s>X<-f>X<-d>X<-l>X<-p>
265 X<-S>X<-b>X<-c>X<-t>X<-u>X<-g>X<-k>X<-T>X<-B>X<-M>X<-A>X<-C>
267 -r File is readable by effective uid/gid.
268 -w File is writable by effective uid/gid.
269 -x File is executable by effective uid/gid.
270 -o File is owned by effective uid.
272 -R File is readable by real uid/gid.
273 -W File is writable by real uid/gid.
274 -X File is executable by real uid/gid.
275 -O File is owned by real uid.
278 -z File has zero size (is empty).
279 -s File has nonzero size (returns size in bytes).
281 -f File is a plain file.
282 -d File is a directory.
283 -l File is a symbolic link.
284 -p File is a named pipe (FIFO), or Filehandle is a pipe.
286 -b File is a block special file.
287 -c File is a character special file.
288 -t Filehandle is opened to a tty.
290 -u File has setuid bit set.
291 -g File has setgid bit set.
292 -k File has sticky bit set.
294 -T File is an ASCII text file (heuristic guess).
295 -B File is a "binary" file (opposite of -T).
297 -M Script start time minus file modification time, in days.
298 -A Same for access time.
299 -C Same for inode change time (Unix, may differ for other platforms)
305 next unless -f $_; # ignore specials
309 The interpretation of the file permission operators C<-r>, C<-R>,
310 C<-w>, C<-W>, C<-x>, and C<-X> is by default based solely on the mode
311 of the file and the uids and gids of the user. There may be other
312 reasons you can't actually read, write, or execute the file. Such
313 reasons may be for example network filesystem access controls, ACLs
314 (access control lists), read-only filesystems, and unrecognized
317 Also note that, for the superuser on the local filesystems, the C<-r>,
318 C<-R>, C<-w>, and C<-W> tests always return 1, and C<-x> and C<-X> return 1
319 if any execute bit is set in the mode. Scripts run by the superuser
320 may thus need to do a stat() to determine the actual mode of the file,
321 or temporarily set their effective uid to something else.
323 If you are using ACLs, there is a pragma called C<filetest> that may
324 produce more accurate results than the bare stat() mode bits.
325 When under the C<use filetest 'access'> the above-mentioned filetests
326 will test whether the permission can (not) be granted using the
327 access() family of system calls. Also note that the C<-x> and C<-X> may
328 under this pragma return true even if there are no execute permission
329 bits set (nor any extra execute permission ACLs). This strangeness is
330 due to the underlying system calls' definitions. Read the
331 documentation for the C<filetest> pragma for more information.
333 Note that C<-s/a/b/> does not do a negated substitution. Saying
334 C<-exp($foo)> still works as expected, however--only single letters
335 following a minus are interpreted as file tests.
337 The C<-T> and C<-B> switches work as follows. The first block or so of the
338 file is examined for odd characters such as strange control codes or
339 characters with the high bit set. If too many strange characters (>30%)
340 are found, it's a C<-B> file, otherwise it's a C<-T> file. Also, any file
341 containing null in the first block is considered a binary file. If C<-T>
342 or C<-B> is used on a filehandle, the current IO buffer is examined
343 rather than the first block. Both C<-T> and C<-B> return true on a null
344 file, or a file at EOF when testing a filehandle. Because you have to
345 read a file to do the C<-T> test, on most occasions you want to use a C<-f>
346 against the file first, as in C<next unless -f $file && -T $file>.
348 If any of the file tests (or either the C<stat> or C<lstat> operators) are given
349 the special filehandle consisting of a solitary underline, then the stat
350 structure of the previous file test (or stat operator) is used, saving
351 a system call. (This doesn't work with C<-t>, and you need to remember
352 that lstat() and C<-l> will leave values in the stat structure for the
353 symbolic link, not the real file.) (Also, if the stat buffer was filled by
354 a C<lstat> call, C<-T> and C<-B> will reset it with the results of C<stat _>).
357 print "Can do.\n" if -r $a || -w _ || -x _;
360 print "Readable\n" if -r _;
361 print "Writable\n" if -w _;
362 print "Executable\n" if -x _;
363 print "Setuid\n" if -u _;
364 print "Setgid\n" if -g _;
365 print "Sticky\n" if -k _;
366 print "Text\n" if -T _;
367 print "Binary\n" if -B _;
373 Returns the absolute value of its argument.
374 If VALUE is omitted, uses C<$_>.
376 =item accept NEWSOCKET,GENERICSOCKET
378 Accepts an incoming socket connect, just as the accept(2) system call
379 does. Returns the packed address if it succeeded, false otherwise.
380 See the example in L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">.
382 On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will
383 be set for the newly opened file descriptor, as determined by the
384 value of $^F. See L<perlvar/$^F>.
390 Arranges to have a SIGALRM delivered to this process after the
391 specified number of wallclock seconds have elapsed. If SECONDS is not
392 specified, the value stored in C<$_> is used. (On some machines,
393 unfortunately, the elapsed time may be up to one second less or more
394 than you specified because of how seconds are counted, and process
395 scheduling may delay the delivery of the signal even further.)
397 Only one timer may be counting at once. Each call disables the
398 previous timer, and an argument of C<0> may be supplied to cancel the
399 previous timer without starting a new one. The returned value is the
400 amount of time remaining on the previous timer.
402 For delays of finer granularity than one second, you may use Perl's
403 four-argument version of select() leaving the first three arguments
404 undefined, or you might be able to use the C<syscall> interface to
405 access setitimer(2) if your system supports it. The Time::HiRes
406 module (from CPAN, and starting from Perl 5.8 part of the standard
407 distribution) may also prove useful.
409 It is usually a mistake to intermix C<alarm> and C<sleep> calls.
410 (C<sleep> may be internally implemented in your system with C<alarm>)
412 If you want to use C<alarm> to time out a system call you need to use an
413 C<eval>/C<die> pair. You can't rely on the alarm causing the system call to
414 fail with C<$!> set to C<EINTR> because Perl sets up signal handlers to
415 restart system calls on some systems. Using C<eval>/C<die> always works,
416 modulo the caveats given in L<perlipc/"Signals">.
419 local $SIG{ALRM} = sub { die "alarm\n" }; # NB: \n required
421 $nread = sysread SOCKET, $buffer, $size;
425 die unless $@ eq "alarm\n"; # propagate unexpected errors
432 For more information see L<perlipc>.
436 Returns the arctangent of Y/X in the range -PI to PI.
438 For the tangent operation, you may use the C<Math::Trig::tan>
439 function, or use the familiar relation:
441 sub tan { sin($_[0]) / cos($_[0]) }
443 =item bind SOCKET,NAME
445 Binds a network address to a socket, just as the bind system call
446 does. Returns true if it succeeded, false otherwise. NAME should be a
447 packed address of the appropriate type for the socket. See the examples in
448 L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">.
450 =item binmode FILEHANDLE, LAYER
452 =item binmode FILEHANDLE
454 Arranges for FILEHANDLE to be read or written in "binary" or "text"
455 mode on systems where the run-time libraries distinguish between
456 binary and text files. If FILEHANDLE is an expression, the value is
457 taken as the name of the filehandle. Returns true on success,
458 otherwise it returns C<undef> and sets C<$!> (errno).
460 If LAYER is omitted or specified as C<:raw> the filehandle is made
461 suitable for passing binary data. This includes turning off possible CRLF
462 translation and marking it as bytes (as opposed to Unicode characters).
463 Note that as desipite what may be implied in I<"Programming Perl">
464 (the Camel) or elsewhere C<:raw> is I<not> the simply inverse of C<:crlf>
465 -- other layers which would affect binary nature of the stream are
466 I<also> disabled. See L<PerlIO>, L<perlrun> and the discussion about the
467 PERLIO environment variable.
469 I<The LAYER parameter of the binmode() function is described as "DISCIPLINE"
470 in "Programming Perl, 3rd Edition". However, since the publishing of this
471 book, by many known as "Camel III", the consensus of the naming of this
472 functionality has moved from "discipline" to "layer". All documentation
473 of this version of Perl therefore refers to "layers" rather than to
474 "disciplines". Now back to the regularly scheduled documentation...>
476 On some systems (in general, DOS and Windows-based systems) binmode()
477 is necessary when you're not working with a text file. For the sake
478 of portability it is a good idea to always use it when appropriate,
479 and to never use it when it isn't appropriate.
481 In other words: regardless of platform, use binmode() on binary files
482 (like for example images).
484 If LAYER is present it is a single string, but may contain
485 multiple directives. The directives alter the behaviour of the
486 file handle. When LAYER is present using binmode on text
489 To mark FILEHANDLE as UTF-8, use C<:utf8>.
491 The C<:bytes>, C<:crlf>, and C<:utf8>, and any other directives of the
492 form C<:...>, are called I/O I<layers>. The C<open> pragma can be used to
493 establish default I/O layers. See L<open>.
495 In general, binmode() should be called after open() but before any I/O
496 is done on the filehandle. Calling binmode() will normally flush any
497 pending buffered output data (and perhaps pending input data) on the
498 handle. An exception to this is the C<:encoding> layer that
499 changes the default character encoding of the handle, see L<open>.
500 The C<:encoding> layer sometimes needs to be called in
501 mid-stream, and it doesn't flush the stream.
503 The operating system, device drivers, C libraries, and Perl run-time
504 system all work together to let the programmer treat a single
505 character (C<\n>) as the line terminator, irrespective of the external
506 representation. On many operating systems, the native text file
507 representation matches the internal representation, but on some
508 platforms the external representation of C<\n> is made up of more than
511 Mac OS, all variants of Unix, and Stream_LF files on VMS use a single
512 character to end each line in the external representation of text (even
513 though that single character is CARRIAGE RETURN on Mac OS and LINE FEED
514 on Unix and most VMS files). In other systems like OS/2, DOS and the
515 various flavors of MS-Windows your program sees a C<\n> as a simple C<\cJ>,
516 but what's stored in text files are the two characters C<\cM\cJ>. That
517 means that, if you don't use binmode() on these systems, C<\cM\cJ>
518 sequences on disk will be converted to C<\n> on input, and any C<\n> in
519 your program will be converted back to C<\cM\cJ> on output. This is what
520 you want for text files, but it can be disastrous for binary files.
522 Another consequence of using binmode() (on some systems) is that
523 special end-of-file markers will be seen as part of the data stream.
524 For systems from the Microsoft family this means that if your binary
525 data contains C<\cZ>, the I/O subsystem will regard it as the end of
526 the file, unless you use binmode().
528 binmode() is not only important for readline() and print() operations,
529 but also when using read(), seek(), sysread(), syswrite() and tell()
530 (see L<perlport> for more details). See the C<$/> and C<$\> variables
531 in L<perlvar> for how to manually set your input and output
532 line-termination sequences.
534 =item bless REF,CLASSNAME
538 This function tells the thingy referenced by REF that it is now an object
539 in the CLASSNAME package. If CLASSNAME is omitted, the current package
540 is used. Because a C<bless> is often the last thing in a constructor,
541 it returns the reference for convenience. Always use the two-argument
542 version if the function doing the blessing might be inherited by a
543 derived class. See L<perltoot> and L<perlobj> for more about the blessing
544 (and blessings) of objects.
546 Consider always blessing objects in CLASSNAMEs that are mixed case.
547 Namespaces with all lowercase names are considered reserved for
548 Perl pragmata. Builtin types have all uppercase names, so to prevent
549 confusion, you may wish to avoid such package names as well. Make sure
550 that CLASSNAME is a true value.
552 See L<perlmod/"Perl Modules">.
558 Returns the context of the current subroutine call. In scalar context,
559 returns the caller's package name if there is a caller, that is, if
560 we're in a subroutine or C<eval> or C<require>, and the undefined value
561 otherwise. In list context, returns
563 ($package, $filename, $line) = caller;
565 With EXPR, it returns some extra information that the debugger uses to
566 print a stack trace. The value of EXPR indicates how many call frames
567 to go back before the current one.
569 ($package, $filename, $line, $subroutine, $hasargs,
570 $wantarray, $evaltext, $is_require, $hints, $bitmask) = caller($i);
572 Here $subroutine may be C<(eval)> if the frame is not a subroutine
573 call, but an C<eval>. In such a case additional elements $evaltext and
574 C<$is_require> are set: C<$is_require> is true if the frame is created by a
575 C<require> or C<use> statement, $evaltext contains the text of the
576 C<eval EXPR> statement. In particular, for an C<eval BLOCK> statement,
577 $filename is C<(eval)>, but $evaltext is undefined. (Note also that
578 each C<use> statement creates a C<require> frame inside an C<eval EXPR>
579 frame.) $subroutine may also be C<(unknown)> if this particular
580 subroutine happens to have been deleted from the symbol table.
581 C<$hasargs> is true if a new instance of C<@_> was set up for the frame.
582 C<$hints> and C<$bitmask> contain pragmatic hints that the caller was
583 compiled with. The C<$hints> and C<$bitmask> values are subject to change
584 between versions of Perl, and are not meant for external use.
586 Furthermore, when called from within the DB package, caller returns more
587 detailed information: it sets the list variable C<@DB::args> to be the
588 arguments with which the subroutine was invoked.
590 Be aware that the optimizer might have optimized call frames away before
591 C<caller> had a chance to get the information. That means that C<caller(N)>
592 might not return information about the call frame you expect it do, for
593 C<< N > 1 >>. In particular, C<@DB::args> might have information from the
594 previous time C<caller> was called.
598 Changes the working directory to EXPR, if possible. If EXPR is omitted,
599 changes to the directory specified by C<$ENV{HOME}>, if set; if not,
600 changes to the directory specified by C<$ENV{LOGDIR}>. (Under VMS, the
601 variable C<$ENV{SYS$LOGIN}> is also checked, and used if it is set.) If
602 neither is set, C<chdir> does nothing. It returns true upon success,
603 false otherwise. See the example under C<die>.
607 Changes the permissions of a list of files. The first element of the
608 list must be the numerical mode, which should probably be an octal
609 number, and which definitely should I<not> a string of octal digits:
610 C<0644> is okay, C<'0644'> is not. Returns the number of files
611 successfully changed. See also L</oct>, if all you have is a string.
613 $cnt = chmod 0755, 'foo', 'bar';
614 chmod 0755, @executables;
615 $mode = '0644'; chmod $mode, 'foo'; # !!! sets mode to
617 $mode = '0644'; chmod oct($mode), 'foo'; # this is better
618 $mode = 0644; chmod $mode, 'foo'; # this is best
620 You can also import the symbolic C<S_I*> constants from the Fcntl
625 chmod S_IRWXU|S_IRGRP|S_IXGRP|S_IROTH|S_IXOTH, @executables;
626 # This is identical to the chmod 0755 of the above example.
634 This safer version of L</chop> removes any trailing string
635 that corresponds to the current value of C<$/> (also known as
636 $INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR in the C<English> module). It returns the total
637 number of characters removed from all its arguments. It's often used to
638 remove the newline from the end of an input record when you're worried
639 that the final record may be missing its newline. When in paragraph
640 mode (C<$/ = "">), it removes all trailing newlines from the string.
641 When in slurp mode (C<$/ = undef>) or fixed-length record mode (C<$/> is
642 a reference to an integer or the like, see L<perlvar>) chomp() won't
644 If VARIABLE is omitted, it chomps C<$_>. Example:
647 chomp; # avoid \n on last field
652 If VARIABLE is a hash, it chomps the hash's values, but not its keys.
654 You can actually chomp anything that's an lvalue, including an assignment:
657 chomp($answer = <STDIN>);
659 If you chomp a list, each element is chomped, and the total number of
660 characters removed is returned.
662 Note that parentheses are necessary when you're chomping anything
663 that is not a simple variable. This is because C<chomp $cwd = `pwd`;>
664 is interpreted as C<(chomp $cwd) = `pwd`;>, rather than as
665 C<chomp( $cwd = `pwd` )> which you might expect. Similarly,
666 C<chomp $a, $b> is interpreted as C<chomp($a), $b> rather than
675 Chops off the last character of a string and returns the character
676 chopped. It is much more efficient than C<s/.$//s> because it neither
677 scans nor copies the string. If VARIABLE is omitted, chops C<$_>.
678 If VARIABLE is a hash, it chops the hash's values, but not its keys.
680 You can actually chop anything that's an lvalue, including an assignment.
682 If you chop a list, each element is chopped. Only the value of the
683 last C<chop> is returned.
685 Note that C<chop> returns the last character. To return all but the last
686 character, use C<substr($string, 0, -1)>.
692 Changes the owner (and group) of a list of files. The first two
693 elements of the list must be the I<numeric> uid and gid, in that
694 order. A value of -1 in either position is interpreted by most
695 systems to leave that value unchanged. Returns the number of files
696 successfully changed.
698 $cnt = chown $uid, $gid, 'foo', 'bar';
699 chown $uid, $gid, @filenames;
701 Here's an example that looks up nonnumeric uids in the passwd file:
704 chomp($user = <STDIN>);
706 chomp($pattern = <STDIN>);
708 ($login,$pass,$uid,$gid) = getpwnam($user)
709 or die "$user not in passwd file";
711 @ary = glob($pattern); # expand filenames
712 chown $uid, $gid, @ary;
714 On most systems, you are not allowed to change the ownership of the
715 file unless you're the superuser, although you should be able to change
716 the group to any of your secondary groups. On insecure systems, these
717 restrictions may be relaxed, but this is not a portable assumption.
718 On POSIX systems, you can detect this condition this way:
720 use POSIX qw(sysconf _PC_CHOWN_RESTRICTED);
721 $can_chown_giveaway = not sysconf(_PC_CHOWN_RESTRICTED);
727 Returns the character represented by that NUMBER in the character set.
728 For example, C<chr(65)> is C<"A"> in either ASCII or Unicode, and
729 chr(0x263a) is a Unicode smiley face. Note that characters from 127
730 to 255 (inclusive) are by default not encoded in Unicode for backward
731 compatibility reasons (but see L<encoding>).
733 For the reverse, use L</ord>.
734 See L<perlunicode> and L<encoding> for more about Unicode.
736 If NUMBER is omitted, uses C<$_>.
738 =item chroot FILENAME
742 This function works like the system call by the same name: it makes the
743 named directory the new root directory for all further pathnames that
744 begin with a C</> by your process and all its children. (It doesn't
745 change your current working directory, which is unaffected.) For security
746 reasons, this call is restricted to the superuser. If FILENAME is
747 omitted, does a C<chroot> to C<$_>.
749 =item close FILEHANDLE
753 Closes the file or pipe associated with the file handle, returning
754 true only if IO buffers are successfully flushed and closes the system
755 file descriptor. Closes the currently selected filehandle if the
758 You don't have to close FILEHANDLE if you are immediately going to do
759 another C<open> on it, because C<open> will close it for you. (See
760 C<open>.) However, an explicit C<close> on an input file resets the line
761 counter (C<$.>), while the implicit close done by C<open> does not.
763 If the file handle came from a piped open C<close> will additionally
764 return false if one of the other system calls involved fails or if the
765 program exits with non-zero status. (If the only problem was that the
766 program exited non-zero C<$!> will be set to C<0>.) Closing a pipe
767 also waits for the process executing on the pipe to complete, in case you
768 want to look at the output of the pipe afterwards, and
769 implicitly puts the exit status value of that command into C<$?>.
771 Prematurely closing the read end of a pipe (i.e. before the process
772 writing to it at the other end has closed it) will result in a
773 SIGPIPE being delivered to the writer. If the other end can't
774 handle that, be sure to read all the data before closing the pipe.
778 open(OUTPUT, '|sort >foo') # pipe to sort
779 or die "Can't start sort: $!";
780 #... # print stuff to output
781 close OUTPUT # wait for sort to finish
782 or warn $! ? "Error closing sort pipe: $!"
783 : "Exit status $? from sort";
784 open(INPUT, 'foo') # get sort's results
785 or die "Can't open 'foo' for input: $!";
787 FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value can be used as an indirect
788 filehandle, usually the real filehandle name.
790 =item closedir DIRHANDLE
792 Closes a directory opened by C<opendir> and returns the success of that
795 =item connect SOCKET,NAME
797 Attempts to connect to a remote socket, just as the connect system call
798 does. Returns true if it succeeded, false otherwise. NAME should be a
799 packed address of the appropriate type for the socket. See the examples in
800 L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">.
804 Actually a flow control statement rather than a function. If there is a
805 C<continue> BLOCK attached to a BLOCK (typically in a C<while> or
806 C<foreach>), it is always executed just before the conditional is about to
807 be evaluated again, just like the third part of a C<for> loop in C. Thus
808 it can be used to increment a loop variable, even when the loop has been
809 continued via the C<next> statement (which is similar to the C C<continue>
812 C<last>, C<next>, or C<redo> may appear within a C<continue>
813 block. C<last> and C<redo> will behave as if they had been executed within
814 the main block. So will C<next>, but since it will execute a C<continue>
815 block, it may be more entertaining.
818 ### redo always comes here
821 ### next always comes here
823 # then back the top to re-check EXPR
825 ### last always comes here
827 Omitting the C<continue> section is semantically equivalent to using an
828 empty one, logically enough. In that case, C<next> goes directly back
829 to check the condition at the top of the loop.
835 Returns the cosine of EXPR (expressed in radians). If EXPR is omitted,
836 takes cosine of C<$_>.
838 For the inverse cosine operation, you may use the C<Math::Trig::acos()>
839 function, or use this relation:
841 sub acos { atan2( sqrt(1 - $_[0] * $_[0]), $_[0] ) }
843 =item crypt PLAINTEXT,SALT
845 Encrypts a string exactly like the crypt(3) function in the C library
846 (assuming that you actually have a version there that has not been
847 extirpated as a potential munition). This can prove useful for checking
848 the password file for lousy passwords, amongst other things. Only the
849 guys wearing white hats should do this.
851 Note that L<crypt|/crypt> is intended to be a one-way function, much like
852 breaking eggs to make an omelette. There is no (known) corresponding
853 decrypt function (in other words, the crypt() is a one-way hash
854 function). As a result, this function isn't all that useful for
855 cryptography. (For that, see your nearby CPAN mirror.)
857 When verifying an existing encrypted string you should use the
858 encrypted text as the salt (like C<crypt($plain, $crypted) eq
859 $crypted>). This allows your code to work with the standard L<crypt|/crypt>
860 and with more exotic implementations. In other words, do not assume
861 anything about the returned string itself, or how many bytes in
862 the encrypted string matter.
864 Traditionally the result is a string of 13 bytes: two first bytes of
865 the salt, followed by 11 bytes from the set C<[./0-9A-Za-z]>, and only
866 the first eight bytes of the encrypted string mattered, but
867 alternative hashing schemes (like MD5), higher level security schemes
868 (like C2), and implementations on non-UNIX platforms may produce
871 When choosing a new salt create a random two character string whose
872 characters come from the set C<[./0-9A-Za-z]> (like C<join '', ('.',
873 '/', 0..9, 'A'..'Z', 'a'..'z')[rand 64, rand 64]>). This set of
874 characters is just a recommendation; the characters allowed in
875 the salt depend solely on your system's crypt library, and Perl can't
876 restrict what salts C<crypt()> accepts.
878 Here's an example that makes sure that whoever runs this program knows
881 $pwd = (getpwuid($<))[1];
885 chomp($word = <STDIN>);
889 if (crypt($word, $pwd) ne $pwd) {
895 Of course, typing in your own password to whoever asks you
898 The L<crypt|/crypt> function is unsuitable for encrypting large quantities
899 of data, not least of all because you can't get the information
900 back. Look at the F<by-module/Crypt> and F<by-module/PGP> directories
901 on your favorite CPAN mirror for a slew of potentially useful
904 If using crypt() on a Unicode string (which I<potentially> has
905 characters with codepoints above 255), Perl tries to make sense
906 of the situation by trying to downgrade (a copy of the string)
907 the string back to an eight-bit byte string before calling crypt()
908 (on that copy). If that works, good. If not, crypt() dies with
909 C<Wide character in crypt>.
913 [This function has been largely superseded by the C<untie> function.]
915 Breaks the binding between a DBM file and a hash.
917 =item dbmopen HASH,DBNAME,MASK
919 [This function has been largely superseded by the C<tie> function.]
921 This binds a dbm(3), ndbm(3), sdbm(3), gdbm(3), or Berkeley DB file to a
922 hash. HASH is the name of the hash. (Unlike normal C<open>, the first
923 argument is I<not> a filehandle, even though it looks like one). DBNAME
924 is the name of the database (without the F<.dir> or F<.pag> extension if
925 any). If the database does not exist, it is created with protection
926 specified by MASK (as modified by the C<umask>). If your system supports
927 only the older DBM functions, you may perform only one C<dbmopen> in your
928 program. In older versions of Perl, if your system had neither DBM nor
929 ndbm, calling C<dbmopen> produced a fatal error; it now falls back to
932 If you don't have write access to the DBM file, you can only read hash
933 variables, not set them. If you want to test whether you can write,
934 either use file tests or try setting a dummy hash entry inside an C<eval>,
935 which will trap the error.
937 Note that functions such as C<keys> and C<values> may return huge lists
938 when used on large DBM files. You may prefer to use the C<each>
939 function to iterate over large DBM files. Example:
941 # print out history file offsets
942 dbmopen(%HIST,'/usr/lib/news/history',0666);
943 while (($key,$val) = each %HIST) {
944 print $key, ' = ', unpack('L',$val), "\n";
948 See also L<AnyDBM_File> for a more general description of the pros and
949 cons of the various dbm approaches, as well as L<DB_File> for a particularly
952 You can control which DBM library you use by loading that library
953 before you call dbmopen():
956 dbmopen(%NS_Hist, "$ENV{HOME}/.netscape/history.db")
957 or die "Can't open netscape history file: $!";
963 Returns a Boolean value telling whether EXPR has a value other than
964 the undefined value C<undef>. If EXPR is not present, C<$_> will be
967 Many operations return C<undef> to indicate failure, end of file,
968 system error, uninitialized variable, and other exceptional
969 conditions. This function allows you to distinguish C<undef> from
970 other values. (A simple Boolean test will not distinguish among
971 C<undef>, zero, the empty string, and C<"0">, which are all equally
972 false.) Note that since C<undef> is a valid scalar, its presence
973 doesn't I<necessarily> indicate an exceptional condition: C<pop>
974 returns C<undef> when its argument is an empty array, I<or> when the
975 element to return happens to be C<undef>.
977 You may also use C<defined(&func)> to check whether subroutine C<&func>
978 has ever been defined. The return value is unaffected by any forward
979 declarations of C<&func>. Note that a subroutine which is not defined
980 may still be callable: its package may have an C<AUTOLOAD> method that
981 makes it spring into existence the first time that it is called -- see
984 Use of C<defined> on aggregates (hashes and arrays) is deprecated. It
985 used to report whether memory for that aggregate has ever been
986 allocated. This behavior may disappear in future versions of Perl.
987 You should instead use a simple test for size:
989 if (@an_array) { print "has array elements\n" }
990 if (%a_hash) { print "has hash members\n" }
992 When used on a hash element, it tells you whether the value is defined,
993 not whether the key exists in the hash. Use L</exists> for the latter
998 print if defined $switch{'D'};
999 print "$val\n" while defined($val = pop(@ary));
1000 die "Can't readlink $sym: $!"
1001 unless defined($value = readlink $sym);
1002 sub foo { defined &$bar ? &$bar(@_) : die "No bar"; }
1003 $debugging = 0 unless defined $debugging;
1005 Note: Many folks tend to overuse C<defined>, and then are surprised to
1006 discover that the number C<0> and C<""> (the zero-length string) are, in fact,
1007 defined values. For example, if you say
1011 The pattern match succeeds, and C<$1> is defined, despite the fact that it
1012 matched "nothing". But it didn't really match nothing--rather, it
1013 matched something that happened to be zero characters long. This is all
1014 very above-board and honest. When a function returns an undefined value,
1015 it's an admission that it couldn't give you an honest answer. So you
1016 should use C<defined> only when you're questioning the integrity of what
1017 you're trying to do. At other times, a simple comparison to C<0> or C<""> is
1020 See also L</undef>, L</exists>, L</ref>.
1024 Given an expression that specifies a hash element, array element, hash slice,
1025 or array slice, deletes the specified element(s) from the hash or array.
1026 In the case of an array, if the array elements happen to be at the end,
1027 the size of the array will shrink to the highest element that tests
1028 true for exists() (or 0 if no such element exists).
1030 Returns each element so deleted or the undefined value if there was no such
1031 element. Deleting from C<$ENV{}> modifies the environment. Deleting from
1032 a hash tied to a DBM file deletes the entry from the DBM file. Deleting
1033 from a C<tie>d hash or array may not necessarily return anything.
1035 Deleting an array element effectively returns that position of the array
1036 to its initial, uninitialized state. Subsequently testing for the same
1037 element with exists() will return false. Note that deleting array
1038 elements in the middle of an array will not shift the index of the ones
1039 after them down--use splice() for that. See L</exists>.
1041 The following (inefficiently) deletes all the values of %HASH and @ARRAY:
1043 foreach $key (keys %HASH) {
1047 foreach $index (0 .. $#ARRAY) {
1048 delete $ARRAY[$index];
1053 delete @HASH{keys %HASH};
1055 delete @ARRAY[0 .. $#ARRAY];
1057 But both of these are slower than just assigning the empty list
1058 or undefining %HASH or @ARRAY:
1060 %HASH = (); # completely empty %HASH
1061 undef %HASH; # forget %HASH ever existed
1063 @ARRAY = (); # completely empty @ARRAY
1064 undef @ARRAY; # forget @ARRAY ever existed
1066 Note that the EXPR can be arbitrarily complicated as long as the final
1067 operation is a hash element, array element, hash slice, or array slice
1070 delete $ref->[$x][$y]{$key};
1071 delete @{$ref->[$x][$y]}{$key1, $key2, @morekeys};
1073 delete $ref->[$x][$y][$index];
1074 delete @{$ref->[$x][$y]}[$index1, $index2, @moreindices];
1078 Outside an C<eval>, prints the value of LIST to C<STDERR> and
1079 exits with the current value of C<$!> (errno). If C<$!> is C<0>,
1080 exits with the value of C<<< ($? >> 8) >>> (backtick `command`
1081 status). If C<<< ($? >> 8) >>> is C<0>, exits with C<255>. Inside
1082 an C<eval(),> the error message is stuffed into C<$@> and the
1083 C<eval> is terminated with the undefined value. This makes
1084 C<die> the way to raise an exception.
1086 Equivalent examples:
1088 die "Can't cd to spool: $!\n" unless chdir '/usr/spool/news';
1089 chdir '/usr/spool/news' or die "Can't cd to spool: $!\n"
1091 If the last element of LIST does not end in a newline, the current
1092 script line number and input line number (if any) are also printed,
1093 and a newline is supplied. Note that the "input line number" (also
1094 known as "chunk") is subject to whatever notion of "line" happens to
1095 be currently in effect, and is also available as the special variable
1096 C<$.>. See L<perlvar/"$/"> and L<perlvar/"$.">.
1098 Hint: sometimes appending C<", stopped"> to your message will cause it
1099 to make better sense when the string C<"at foo line 123"> is appended.
1100 Suppose you are running script "canasta".
1102 die "/etc/games is no good";
1103 die "/etc/games is no good, stopped";
1105 produce, respectively
1107 /etc/games is no good at canasta line 123.
1108 /etc/games is no good, stopped at canasta line 123.
1110 See also exit(), warn(), and the Carp module.
1112 If LIST is empty and C<$@> already contains a value (typically from a
1113 previous eval) that value is reused after appending C<"\t...propagated">.
1114 This is useful for propagating exceptions:
1117 die unless $@ =~ /Expected exception/;
1119 If LIST is empty and C<$@> contains an object reference that has a
1120 C<PROPAGATE> method, that method will be called with additional file
1121 and line number parameters. The return value replaces the value in
1122 C<$@>. ie. as if C<<$@ = eval { $@->PROPAGATE(__FILE__, __LINE__) };>>
1125 If C<$@> is empty then the string C<"Died"> is used.
1127 die() can also be called with a reference argument. If this happens to be
1128 trapped within an eval(), $@ contains the reference. This behavior permits
1129 a more elaborate exception handling implementation using objects that
1130 maintain arbitrary state about the nature of the exception. Such a scheme
1131 is sometimes preferable to matching particular string values of $@ using
1132 regular expressions. Here's an example:
1134 eval { ... ; die Some::Module::Exception->new( FOO => "bar" ) };
1136 if (ref($@) && UNIVERSAL::isa($@,"Some::Module::Exception")) {
1137 # handle Some::Module::Exception
1140 # handle all other possible exceptions
1144 Because perl will stringify uncaught exception messages before displaying
1145 them, you may want to overload stringification operations on such custom
1146 exception objects. See L<overload> for details about that.
1148 You can arrange for a callback to be run just before the C<die>
1149 does its deed, by setting the C<$SIG{__DIE__}> hook. The associated
1150 handler will be called with the error text and can change the error
1151 message, if it sees fit, by calling C<die> again. See
1152 L<perlvar/$SIG{expr}> for details on setting C<%SIG> entries, and
1153 L<"eval BLOCK"> for some examples. Although this feature was meant
1154 to be run only right before your program was to exit, this is not
1155 currently the case--the C<$SIG{__DIE__}> hook is currently called
1156 even inside eval()ed blocks/strings! If one wants the hook to do
1157 nothing in such situations, put
1161 as the first line of the handler (see L<perlvar/$^S>). Because
1162 this promotes strange action at a distance, this counterintuitive
1163 behavior may be fixed in a future release.
1167 Not really a function. Returns the value of the last command in the
1168 sequence of commands indicated by BLOCK. When modified by a loop
1169 modifier, executes the BLOCK once before testing the loop condition.
1170 (On other statements the loop modifiers test the conditional first.)
1172 C<do BLOCK> does I<not> count as a loop, so the loop control statements
1173 C<next>, C<last>, or C<redo> cannot be used to leave or restart the block.
1174 See L<perlsyn> for alternative strategies.
1176 =item do SUBROUTINE(LIST)
1178 A deprecated form of subroutine call. See L<perlsub>.
1182 Uses the value of EXPR as a filename and executes the contents of the
1183 file as a Perl script. Its primary use is to include subroutines
1184 from a Perl subroutine library.
1192 except that it's more efficient and concise, keeps track of the current
1193 filename for error messages, searches the @INC libraries, and updates
1194 C<%INC> if the file is found. See L<perlvar/Predefined Names> for these
1195 variables. It also differs in that code evaluated with C<do FILENAME>
1196 cannot see lexicals in the enclosing scope; C<eval STRING> does. It's the
1197 same, however, in that it does reparse the file every time you call it,
1198 so you probably don't want to do this inside a loop.
1200 If C<do> cannot read the file, it returns undef and sets C<$!> to the
1201 error. If C<do> can read the file but cannot compile it, it
1202 returns undef and sets an error message in C<$@>. If the file is
1203 successfully compiled, C<do> returns the value of the last expression
1206 Note that inclusion of library modules is better done with the
1207 C<use> and C<require> operators, which also do automatic error checking
1208 and raise an exception if there's a problem.
1210 You might like to use C<do> to read in a program configuration
1211 file. Manual error checking can be done this way:
1213 # read in config files: system first, then user
1214 for $file ("/share/prog/defaults.rc",
1215 "$ENV{HOME}/.someprogrc")
1217 unless ($return = do $file) {
1218 warn "couldn't parse $file: $@" if $@;
1219 warn "couldn't do $file: $!" unless defined $return;
1220 warn "couldn't run $file" unless $return;
1228 This function causes an immediate core dump. See also the B<-u>
1229 command-line switch in L<perlrun>, which does the same thing.
1230 Primarily this is so that you can use the B<undump> program (not
1231 supplied) to turn your core dump into an executable binary after
1232 having initialized all your variables at the beginning of the
1233 program. When the new binary is executed it will begin by executing
1234 a C<goto LABEL> (with all the restrictions that C<goto> suffers).
1235 Think of it as a goto with an intervening core dump and reincarnation.
1236 If C<LABEL> is omitted, restarts the program from the top.
1238 B<WARNING>: Any files opened at the time of the dump will I<not>
1239 be open any more when the program is reincarnated, with possible
1240 resulting confusion on the part of Perl.
1242 This function is now largely obsolete, partly because it's very
1243 hard to convert a core file into an executable, and because the
1244 real compiler backends for generating portable bytecode and compilable
1245 C code have superseded it. That's why you should now invoke it as
1246 C<CORE::dump()>, if you don't want to be warned against a possible
1249 If you're looking to use L<dump> to speed up your program, consider
1250 generating bytecode or native C code as described in L<perlcc>. If
1251 you're just trying to accelerate a CGI script, consider using the
1252 C<mod_perl> extension to B<Apache>, or the CPAN module, CGI::Fast.
1253 You might also consider autoloading or selfloading, which at least
1254 make your program I<appear> to run faster.
1258 When called in list context, returns a 2-element list consisting of the
1259 key and value for the next element of a hash, so that you can iterate over
1260 it. When called in scalar context, returns only the key for the next
1261 element in the hash.
1263 Entries are returned in an apparently random order. The actual random
1264 order is subject to change in future versions of perl, but it is guaranteed
1265 to be in the same order as either the C<keys> or C<values> function
1266 would produce on the same (unmodified) hash.
1268 When the hash is entirely read, a null array is returned in list context
1269 (which when assigned produces a false (C<0>) value), and C<undef> in
1270 scalar context. The next call to C<each> after that will start iterating
1271 again. There is a single iterator for each hash, shared by all C<each>,
1272 C<keys>, and C<values> function calls in the program; it can be reset by
1273 reading all the elements from the hash, or by evaluating C<keys HASH> or
1274 C<values HASH>. If you add or delete elements of a hash while you're
1275 iterating over it, you may get entries skipped or duplicated, so
1276 don't. Exception: It is always safe to delete the item most recently
1277 returned by C<each()>, which means that the following code will work:
1279 while (($key, $value) = each %hash) {
1281 delete $hash{$key}; # This is safe
1284 The following prints out your environment like the printenv(1) program,
1285 only in a different order:
1287 while (($key,$value) = each %ENV) {
1288 print "$key=$value\n";
1291 See also C<keys>, C<values> and C<sort>.
1293 =item eof FILEHANDLE
1299 Returns 1 if the next read on FILEHANDLE will return end of file, or if
1300 FILEHANDLE is not open. FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value
1301 gives the real filehandle. (Note that this function actually
1302 reads a character and then C<ungetc>s it, so isn't very useful in an
1303 interactive context.) Do not read from a terminal file (or call
1304 C<eof(FILEHANDLE)> on it) after end-of-file is reached. File types such
1305 as terminals may lose the end-of-file condition if you do.
1307 An C<eof> without an argument uses the last file read. Using C<eof()>
1308 with empty parentheses is very different. It refers to the pseudo file
1309 formed from the files listed on the command line and accessed via the
1310 C<< <> >> operator. Since C<< <> >> isn't explicitly opened,
1311 as a normal filehandle is, an C<eof()> before C<< <> >> has been
1312 used will cause C<@ARGV> to be examined to determine if input is
1313 available. Similarly, an C<eof()> after C<< <> >> has returned
1314 end-of-file will assume you are processing another C<@ARGV> list,
1315 and if you haven't set C<@ARGV>, will read input from C<STDIN>;
1316 see L<perlop/"I/O Operators">.
1318 In a C<< while (<>) >> loop, C<eof> or C<eof(ARGV)> can be used to
1319 detect the end of each file, C<eof()> will only detect the end of the
1320 last file. Examples:
1322 # reset line numbering on each input file
1324 next if /^\s*#/; # skip comments
1327 close ARGV if eof; # Not eof()!
1330 # insert dashes just before last line of last file
1332 if (eof()) { # check for end of last file
1333 print "--------------\n";
1336 last if eof(); # needed if we're reading from a terminal
1339 Practical hint: you almost never need to use C<eof> in Perl, because the
1340 input operators typically return C<undef> when they run out of data, or if
1347 In the first form, the return value of EXPR is parsed and executed as if it
1348 were a little Perl program. The value of the expression (which is itself
1349 determined within scalar context) is first parsed, and if there weren't any
1350 errors, executed in the lexical context of the current Perl program, so
1351 that any variable settings or subroutine and format definitions remain
1352 afterwards. Note that the value is parsed every time the eval executes.
1353 If EXPR is omitted, evaluates C<$_>. This form is typically used to
1354 delay parsing and subsequent execution of the text of EXPR until run time.
1356 In the second form, the code within the BLOCK is parsed only once--at the
1357 same time the code surrounding the eval itself was parsed--and executed
1358 within the context of the current Perl program. This form is typically
1359 used to trap exceptions more efficiently than the first (see below), while
1360 also providing the benefit of checking the code within BLOCK at compile
1363 The final semicolon, if any, may be omitted from the value of EXPR or within
1366 In both forms, the value returned is the value of the last expression
1367 evaluated inside the mini-program; a return statement may be also used, just
1368 as with subroutines. The expression providing the return value is evaluated
1369 in void, scalar, or list context, depending on the context of the eval itself.
1370 See L</wantarray> for more on how the evaluation context can be determined.
1372 If there is a syntax error or runtime error, or a C<die> statement is
1373 executed, an undefined value is returned by C<eval>, and C<$@> is set to the
1374 error message. If there was no error, C<$@> is guaranteed to be a null
1375 string. Beware that using C<eval> neither silences perl from printing
1376 warnings to STDERR, nor does it stuff the text of warning messages into C<$@>.
1377 To do either of those, you have to use the C<$SIG{__WARN__}> facility, or
1378 turn off warnings inside the BLOCK or EXPR using S<C<no warnings 'all'>>.
1379 See L</warn>, L<perlvar>, L<warnings> and L<perllexwarn>.
1381 Note that, because C<eval> traps otherwise-fatal errors, it is useful for
1382 determining whether a particular feature (such as C<socket> or C<symlink>)
1383 is implemented. It is also Perl's exception trapping mechanism, where
1384 the die operator is used to raise exceptions.
1386 If the code to be executed doesn't vary, you may use the eval-BLOCK
1387 form to trap run-time errors without incurring the penalty of
1388 recompiling each time. The error, if any, is still returned in C<$@>.
1391 # make divide-by-zero nonfatal
1392 eval { $answer = $a / $b; }; warn $@ if $@;
1394 # same thing, but less efficient
1395 eval '$answer = $a / $b'; warn $@ if $@;
1397 # a compile-time error
1398 eval { $answer = }; # WRONG
1401 eval '$answer ='; # sets $@
1403 Due to the current arguably broken state of C<__DIE__> hooks, when using
1404 the C<eval{}> form as an exception trap in libraries, you may wish not
1405 to trigger any C<__DIE__> hooks that user code may have installed.
1406 You can use the C<local $SIG{__DIE__}> construct for this purpose,
1407 as shown in this example:
1409 # a very private exception trap for divide-by-zero
1410 eval { local $SIG{'__DIE__'}; $answer = $a / $b; };
1413 This is especially significant, given that C<__DIE__> hooks can call
1414 C<die> again, which has the effect of changing their error messages:
1416 # __DIE__ hooks may modify error messages
1418 local $SIG{'__DIE__'} =
1419 sub { (my $x = $_[0]) =~ s/foo/bar/g; die $x };
1420 eval { die "foo lives here" };
1421 print $@ if $@; # prints "bar lives here"
1424 Because this promotes action at a distance, this counterintuitive behavior
1425 may be fixed in a future release.
1427 With an C<eval>, you should be especially careful to remember what's
1428 being looked at when:
1434 eval { $x }; # CASE 4
1436 eval "\$$x++"; # CASE 5
1439 Cases 1 and 2 above behave identically: they run the code contained in
1440 the variable $x. (Although case 2 has misleading double quotes making
1441 the reader wonder what else might be happening (nothing is).) Cases 3
1442 and 4 likewise behave in the same way: they run the code C<'$x'>, which
1443 does nothing but return the value of $x. (Case 4 is preferred for
1444 purely visual reasons, but it also has the advantage of compiling at
1445 compile-time instead of at run-time.) Case 5 is a place where
1446 normally you I<would> like to use double quotes, except that in this
1447 particular situation, you can just use symbolic references instead, as
1450 C<eval BLOCK> does I<not> count as a loop, so the loop control statements
1451 C<next>, C<last>, or C<redo> cannot be used to leave or restart the block.
1453 Note that as a very special case, an C<eval ''> executed within the C<DB>
1454 package doesn't see the usual surrounding lexical scope, but rather the
1455 scope of the first non-DB piece of code that called it. You don't normally
1456 need to worry about this unless you are writing a Perl debugger.
1460 =item exec PROGRAM LIST
1462 The C<exec> function executes a system command I<and never returns>--
1463 use C<system> instead of C<exec> if you want it to return. It fails and
1464 returns false only if the command does not exist I<and> it is executed
1465 directly instead of via your system's command shell (see below).
1467 Since it's a common mistake to use C<exec> instead of C<system>, Perl
1468 warns you if there is a following statement which isn't C<die>, C<warn>,
1469 or C<exit> (if C<-w> is set - but you always do that). If you
1470 I<really> want to follow an C<exec> with some other statement, you
1471 can use one of these styles to avoid the warning:
1473 exec ('foo') or print STDERR "couldn't exec foo: $!";
1474 { exec ('foo') }; print STDERR "couldn't exec foo: $!";
1476 If there is more than one argument in LIST, or if LIST is an array
1477 with more than one value, calls execvp(3) with the arguments in LIST.
1478 If there is only one scalar argument or an array with one element in it,
1479 the argument is checked for shell metacharacters, and if there are any,
1480 the entire argument is passed to the system's command shell for parsing
1481 (this is C</bin/sh -c> on Unix platforms, but varies on other platforms).
1482 If there are no shell metacharacters in the argument, it is split into
1483 words and passed directly to C<execvp>, which is more efficient.
1486 exec '/bin/echo', 'Your arguments are: ', @ARGV;
1487 exec "sort $outfile | uniq";
1489 If you don't really want to execute the first argument, but want to lie
1490 to the program you are executing about its own name, you can specify
1491 the program you actually want to run as an "indirect object" (without a
1492 comma) in front of the LIST. (This always forces interpretation of the
1493 LIST as a multivalued list, even if there is only a single scalar in
1496 $shell = '/bin/csh';
1497 exec $shell '-sh'; # pretend it's a login shell
1501 exec {'/bin/csh'} '-sh'; # pretend it's a login shell
1503 When the arguments get executed via the system shell, results will
1504 be subject to its quirks and capabilities. See L<perlop/"`STRING`">
1507 Using an indirect object with C<exec> or C<system> is also more
1508 secure. This usage (which also works fine with system()) forces
1509 interpretation of the arguments as a multivalued list, even if the
1510 list had just one argument. That way you're safe from the shell
1511 expanding wildcards or splitting up words with whitespace in them.
1513 @args = ( "echo surprise" );
1515 exec @args; # subject to shell escapes
1517 exec { $args[0] } @args; # safe even with one-arg list
1519 The first version, the one without the indirect object, ran the I<echo>
1520 program, passing it C<"surprise"> an argument. The second version
1521 didn't--it tried to run a program literally called I<"echo surprise">,
1522 didn't find it, and set C<$?> to a non-zero value indicating failure.
1524 Beginning with v5.6.0, Perl will attempt to flush all files opened for
1525 output before the exec, but this may not be supported on some platforms
1526 (see L<perlport>). To be safe, you may need to set C<$|> ($AUTOFLUSH
1527 in English) or call the C<autoflush()> method of C<IO::Handle> on any
1528 open handles in order to avoid lost output.
1530 Note that C<exec> will not call your C<END> blocks, nor will it call
1531 any C<DESTROY> methods in your objects.
1535 Given an expression that specifies a hash element or array element,
1536 returns true if the specified element in the hash or array has ever
1537 been initialized, even if the corresponding value is undefined. The
1538 element is not autovivified if it doesn't exist.
1540 print "Exists\n" if exists $hash{$key};
1541 print "Defined\n" if defined $hash{$key};
1542 print "True\n" if $hash{$key};
1544 print "Exists\n" if exists $array[$index];
1545 print "Defined\n" if defined $array[$index];
1546 print "True\n" if $array[$index];
1548 A hash or array element can be true only if it's defined, and defined if
1549 it exists, but the reverse doesn't necessarily hold true.
1551 Given an expression that specifies the name of a subroutine,
1552 returns true if the specified subroutine has ever been declared, even
1553 if it is undefined. Mentioning a subroutine name for exists or defined
1554 does not count as declaring it. Note that a subroutine which does not
1555 exist may still be callable: its package may have an C<AUTOLOAD>
1556 method that makes it spring into existence the first time that it is
1557 called -- see L<perlsub>.
1559 print "Exists\n" if exists &subroutine;
1560 print "Defined\n" if defined &subroutine;
1562 Note that the EXPR can be arbitrarily complicated as long as the final
1563 operation is a hash or array key lookup or subroutine name:
1565 if (exists $ref->{A}->{B}->{$key}) { }
1566 if (exists $hash{A}{B}{$key}) { }
1568 if (exists $ref->{A}->{B}->[$ix]) { }
1569 if (exists $hash{A}{B}[$ix]) { }
1571 if (exists &{$ref->{A}{B}{$key}}) { }
1573 Although the deepest nested array or hash will not spring into existence
1574 just because its existence was tested, any intervening ones will.
1575 Thus C<< $ref->{"A"} >> and C<< $ref->{"A"}->{"B"} >> will spring
1576 into existence due to the existence test for the $key element above.
1577 This happens anywhere the arrow operator is used, including even:
1580 if (exists $ref->{"Some key"}) { }
1581 print $ref; # prints HASH(0x80d3d5c)
1583 This surprising autovivification in what does not at first--or even
1584 second--glance appear to be an lvalue context may be fixed in a future
1587 Use of a subroutine call, rather than a subroutine name, as an argument
1588 to exists() is an error.
1591 exists &sub(); # Error
1595 Evaluates EXPR and exits immediately with that value. Example:
1598 exit 0 if $ans =~ /^[Xx]/;
1600 See also C<die>. If EXPR is omitted, exits with C<0> status. The only
1601 universally recognized values for EXPR are C<0> for success and C<1>
1602 for error; other values are subject to interpretation depending on the
1603 environment in which the Perl program is running. For example, exiting
1604 69 (EX_UNAVAILABLE) from a I<sendmail> incoming-mail filter will cause
1605 the mailer to return the item undelivered, but that's not true everywhere.
1607 Don't use C<exit> to abort a subroutine if there's any chance that
1608 someone might want to trap whatever error happened. Use C<die> instead,
1609 which can be trapped by an C<eval>.
1611 The exit() function does not always exit immediately. It calls any
1612 defined C<END> routines first, but these C<END> routines may not
1613 themselves abort the exit. Likewise any object destructors that need to
1614 be called are called before the real exit. If this is a problem, you
1615 can call C<POSIX:_exit($status)> to avoid END and destructor processing.
1616 See L<perlmod> for details.
1622 Returns I<e> (the natural logarithm base) to the power of EXPR.
1623 If EXPR is omitted, gives C<exp($_)>.
1625 =item fcntl FILEHANDLE,FUNCTION,SCALAR
1627 Implements the fcntl(2) function. You'll probably have to say
1631 first to get the correct constant definitions. Argument processing and
1632 value return works just like C<ioctl> below.
1636 fcntl($filehandle, F_GETFL, $packed_return_buffer)
1637 or die "can't fcntl F_GETFL: $!";
1639 You don't have to check for C<defined> on the return from C<fnctl>.
1640 Like C<ioctl>, it maps a C<0> return from the system call into
1641 C<"0 but true"> in Perl. This string is true in boolean context and C<0>
1642 in numeric context. It is also exempt from the normal B<-w> warnings
1643 on improper numeric conversions.
1645 Note that C<fcntl> will produce a fatal error if used on a machine that
1646 doesn't implement fcntl(2). See the Fcntl module or your fcntl(2)
1647 manpage to learn what functions are available on your system.
1649 =item fileno FILEHANDLE
1651 Returns the file descriptor for a filehandle, or undefined if the
1652 filehandle is not open. This is mainly useful for constructing
1653 bitmaps for C<select> and low-level POSIX tty-handling operations.
1654 If FILEHANDLE is an expression, the value is taken as an indirect
1655 filehandle, generally its name.
1657 You can use this to find out whether two handles refer to the
1658 same underlying descriptor:
1660 if (fileno(THIS) == fileno(THAT)) {
1661 print "THIS and THAT are dups\n";
1664 (Filehandles connected to memory objects via new features of C<open> may
1665 return undefined even though they are open.)
1668 =item flock FILEHANDLE,OPERATION
1670 Calls flock(2), or an emulation of it, on FILEHANDLE. Returns true
1671 for success, false on failure. Produces a fatal error if used on a
1672 machine that doesn't implement flock(2), fcntl(2) locking, or lockf(3).
1673 C<flock> is Perl's portable file locking interface, although it locks
1674 only entire files, not records.
1676 Two potentially non-obvious but traditional C<flock> semantics are
1677 that it waits indefinitely until the lock is granted, and that its locks
1678 B<merely advisory>. Such discretionary locks are more flexible, but offer
1679 fewer guarantees. This means that files locked with C<flock> may be
1680 modified by programs that do not also use C<flock>. See L<perlport>,
1681 your port's specific documentation, or your system-specific local manpages
1682 for details. It's best to assume traditional behavior if you're writing
1683 portable programs. (But if you're not, you should as always feel perfectly
1684 free to write for your own system's idiosyncrasies (sometimes called
1685 "features"). Slavish adherence to portability concerns shouldn't get
1686 in the way of your getting your job done.)
1688 OPERATION is one of LOCK_SH, LOCK_EX, or LOCK_UN, possibly combined with
1689 LOCK_NB. These constants are traditionally valued 1, 2, 8 and 4, but
1690 you can use the symbolic names if you import them from the Fcntl module,
1691 either individually, or as a group using the ':flock' tag. LOCK_SH
1692 requests a shared lock, LOCK_EX requests an exclusive lock, and LOCK_UN
1693 releases a previously requested lock. If LOCK_NB is bitwise-or'ed with
1694 LOCK_SH or LOCK_EX then C<flock> will return immediately rather than blocking
1695 waiting for the lock (check the return status to see if you got it).
1697 To avoid the possibility of miscoordination, Perl now flushes FILEHANDLE
1698 before locking or unlocking it.
1700 Note that the emulation built with lockf(3) doesn't provide shared
1701 locks, and it requires that FILEHANDLE be open with write intent. These
1702 are the semantics that lockf(3) implements. Most if not all systems
1703 implement lockf(3) in terms of fcntl(2) locking, though, so the
1704 differing semantics shouldn't bite too many people.
1706 Note that the fcntl(2) emulation of flock(3) requires that FILEHANDLE
1707 be open with read intent to use LOCK_SH and requires that it be open
1708 with write intent to use LOCK_EX.
1710 Note also that some versions of C<flock> cannot lock things over the
1711 network; you would need to use the more system-specific C<fcntl> for
1712 that. If you like you can force Perl to ignore your system's flock(2)
1713 function, and so provide its own fcntl(2)-based emulation, by passing
1714 the switch C<-Ud_flock> to the F<Configure> program when you configure
1717 Here's a mailbox appender for BSD systems.
1719 use Fcntl ':flock'; # import LOCK_* constants
1722 flock(MBOX,LOCK_EX);
1723 # and, in case someone appended
1724 # while we were waiting...
1729 flock(MBOX,LOCK_UN);
1732 open(MBOX, ">>/usr/spool/mail/$ENV{'USER'}")
1733 or die "Can't open mailbox: $!";
1736 print MBOX $msg,"\n\n";
1739 On systems that support a real flock(), locks are inherited across fork()
1740 calls, whereas those that must resort to the more capricious fcntl()
1741 function lose the locks, making it harder to write servers.
1743 See also L<DB_File> for other flock() examples.
1747 Does a fork(2) system call to create a new process running the
1748 same program at the same point. It returns the child pid to the
1749 parent process, C<0> to the child process, or C<undef> if the fork is
1750 unsuccessful. File descriptors (and sometimes locks on those descriptors)
1751 are shared, while everything else is copied. On most systems supporting
1752 fork(), great care has gone into making it extremely efficient (for
1753 example, using copy-on-write technology on data pages), making it the
1754 dominant paradigm for multitasking over the last few decades.
1756 Beginning with v5.6.0, Perl will attempt to flush all files opened for
1757 output before forking the child process, but this may not be supported
1758 on some platforms (see L<perlport>). To be safe, you may need to set
1759 C<$|> ($AUTOFLUSH in English) or call the C<autoflush()> method of
1760 C<IO::Handle> on any open handles in order to avoid duplicate output.
1762 If you C<fork> without ever waiting on your children, you will
1763 accumulate zombies. On some systems, you can avoid this by setting
1764 C<$SIG{CHLD}> to C<"IGNORE">. See also L<perlipc> for more examples of
1765 forking and reaping moribund children.
1767 Note that if your forked child inherits system file descriptors like
1768 STDIN and STDOUT that are actually connected by a pipe or socket, even
1769 if you exit, then the remote server (such as, say, a CGI script or a
1770 backgrounded job launched from a remote shell) won't think you're done.
1771 You should reopen those to F</dev/null> if it's any issue.
1775 Declare a picture format for use by the C<write> function. For
1779 Test: @<<<<<<<< @||||| @>>>>>
1780 $str, $%, '$' . int($num)
1784 $num = $cost/$quantity;
1788 See L<perlform> for many details and examples.
1790 =item formline PICTURE,LIST
1792 This is an internal function used by C<format>s, though you may call it,
1793 too. It formats (see L<perlform>) a list of values according to the
1794 contents of PICTURE, placing the output into the format output
1795 accumulator, C<$^A> (or C<$ACCUMULATOR> in English).
1796 Eventually, when a C<write> is done, the contents of
1797 C<$^A> are written to some filehandle, but you could also read C<$^A>
1798 yourself and then set C<$^A> back to C<"">. Note that a format typically
1799 does one C<formline> per line of form, but the C<formline> function itself
1800 doesn't care how many newlines are embedded in the PICTURE. This means
1801 that the C<~> and C<~~> tokens will treat the entire PICTURE as a single line.
1802 You may therefore need to use multiple formlines to implement a single
1803 record format, just like the format compiler.
1805 Be careful if you put double quotes around the picture, because an C<@>
1806 character may be taken to mean the beginning of an array name.
1807 C<formline> always returns true. See L<perlform> for other examples.
1809 =item getc FILEHANDLE
1813 Returns the next character from the input file attached to FILEHANDLE,
1814 or the undefined value at end of file, or if there was an error (in
1815 the latter case C<$!> is set). If FILEHANDLE is omitted, reads from
1816 STDIN. This is not particularly efficient. However, it cannot be
1817 used by itself to fetch single characters without waiting for the user
1818 to hit enter. For that, try something more like:
1821 system "stty cbreak </dev/tty >/dev/tty 2>&1";
1824 system "stty", '-icanon', 'eol', "\001";
1830 system "stty -cbreak </dev/tty >/dev/tty 2>&1";
1833 system "stty", 'icanon', 'eol', '^@'; # ASCII null
1837 Determination of whether $BSD_STYLE should be set
1838 is left as an exercise to the reader.
1840 The C<POSIX::getattr> function can do this more portably on
1841 systems purporting POSIX compliance. See also the C<Term::ReadKey>
1842 module from your nearest CPAN site; details on CPAN can be found on
1847 Implements the C library function of the same name, which on most
1848 systems returns the current login from F</etc/utmp>, if any. If null,
1851 $login = getlogin || getpwuid($<) || "Kilroy";
1853 Do not consider C<getlogin> for authentication: it is not as
1854 secure as C<getpwuid>.
1856 =item getpeername SOCKET
1858 Returns the packed sockaddr address of other end of the SOCKET connection.
1861 $hersockaddr = getpeername(SOCK);
1862 ($port, $iaddr) = sockaddr_in($hersockaddr);
1863 $herhostname = gethostbyaddr($iaddr, AF_INET);
1864 $herstraddr = inet_ntoa($iaddr);
1868 Returns the current process group for the specified PID. Use
1869 a PID of C<0> to get the current process group for the
1870 current process. Will raise an exception if used on a machine that
1871 doesn't implement getpgrp(2). If PID is omitted, returns process
1872 group of current process. Note that the POSIX version of C<getpgrp>
1873 does not accept a PID argument, so only C<PID==0> is truly portable.
1877 Returns the process id of the parent process.
1879 Note for Linux users: on Linux, the C functions C<getpid()> and
1880 C<getppid()> return different values from different threads. In order to
1881 be portable, this behavior is not reflected by the perl-level function
1882 C<getppid()>, that returns a consistent value across threads. If you want
1883 to call the underlying C<getppid()>, you may use the CPAN module
1886 =item getpriority WHICH,WHO
1888 Returns the current priority for a process, a process group, or a user.
1889 (See L<getpriority(2)>.) Will raise a fatal exception if used on a
1890 machine that doesn't implement getpriority(2).
1896 =item gethostbyname NAME
1898 =item getnetbyname NAME
1900 =item getprotobyname NAME
1906 =item getservbyname NAME,PROTO
1908 =item gethostbyaddr ADDR,ADDRTYPE
1910 =item getnetbyaddr ADDR,ADDRTYPE
1912 =item getprotobynumber NUMBER
1914 =item getservbyport PORT,PROTO
1932 =item sethostent STAYOPEN
1934 =item setnetent STAYOPEN
1936 =item setprotoent STAYOPEN
1938 =item setservent STAYOPEN
1952 These routines perform the same functions as their counterparts in the
1953 system library. In list context, the return values from the
1954 various get routines are as follows:
1956 ($name,$passwd,$uid,$gid,
1957 $quota,$comment,$gcos,$dir,$shell,$expire) = getpw*
1958 ($name,$passwd,$gid,$members) = getgr*
1959 ($name,$aliases,$addrtype,$length,@addrs) = gethost*
1960 ($name,$aliases,$addrtype,$net) = getnet*
1961 ($name,$aliases,$proto) = getproto*
1962 ($name,$aliases,$port,$proto) = getserv*
1964 (If the entry doesn't exist you get a null list.)
1966 The exact meaning of the $gcos field varies but it usually contains
1967 the real name of the user (as opposed to the login name) and other
1968 information pertaining to the user. Beware, however, that in many
1969 system users are able to change this information and therefore it
1970 cannot be trusted and therefore the $gcos is tainted (see
1971 L<perlsec>). The $passwd and $shell, user's encrypted password and
1972 login shell, are also tainted, because of the same reason.
1974 In scalar context, you get the name, unless the function was a
1975 lookup by name, in which case you get the other thing, whatever it is.
1976 (If the entry doesn't exist you get the undefined value.) For example:
1978 $uid = getpwnam($name);
1979 $name = getpwuid($num);
1981 $gid = getgrnam($name);
1982 $name = getgrgid($num);
1986 In I<getpw*()> the fields $quota, $comment, and $expire are special
1987 cases in the sense that in many systems they are unsupported. If the
1988 $quota is unsupported, it is an empty scalar. If it is supported, it
1989 usually encodes the disk quota. If the $comment field is unsupported,
1990 it is an empty scalar. If it is supported it usually encodes some
1991 administrative comment about the user. In some systems the $quota
1992 field may be $change or $age, fields that have to do with password
1993 aging. In some systems the $comment field may be $class. The $expire
1994 field, if present, encodes the expiration period of the account or the
1995 password. For the availability and the exact meaning of these fields
1996 in your system, please consult your getpwnam(3) documentation and your
1997 F<pwd.h> file. You can also find out from within Perl what your
1998 $quota and $comment fields mean and whether you have the $expire field
1999 by using the C<Config> module and the values C<d_pwquota>, C<d_pwage>,
2000 C<d_pwchange>, C<d_pwcomment>, and C<d_pwexpire>. Shadow password
2001 files are only supported if your vendor has implemented them in the
2002 intuitive fashion that calling the regular C library routines gets the
2003 shadow versions if you're running under privilege or if there exists
2004 the shadow(3) functions as found in System V ( this includes Solaris
2005 and Linux.) Those systems which implement a proprietary shadow password
2006 facility are unlikely to be supported.
2008 The $members value returned by I<getgr*()> is a space separated list of
2009 the login names of the members of the group.
2011 For the I<gethost*()> functions, if the C<h_errno> variable is supported in
2012 C, it will be returned to you via C<$?> if the function call fails. The
2013 C<@addrs> value returned by a successful call is a list of the raw
2014 addresses returned by the corresponding system library call. In the
2015 Internet domain, each address is four bytes long and you can unpack it
2016 by saying something like:
2018 ($a,$b,$c,$d) = unpack('C4',$addr[0]);
2020 The Socket library makes this slightly easier:
2023 $iaddr = inet_aton("127.1"); # or whatever address
2024 $name = gethostbyaddr($iaddr, AF_INET);
2026 # or going the other way
2027 $straddr = inet_ntoa($iaddr);
2029 If you get tired of remembering which element of the return list
2030 contains which return value, by-name interfaces are provided
2031 in standard modules: C<File::stat>, C<Net::hostent>, C<Net::netent>,
2032 C<Net::protoent>, C<Net::servent>, C<Time::gmtime>, C<Time::localtime>,
2033 and C<User::grent>. These override the normal built-ins, supplying
2034 versions that return objects with the appropriate names
2035 for each field. For example:
2039 $is_his = (stat($filename)->uid == pwent($whoever)->uid);
2041 Even though it looks like they're the same method calls (uid),
2042 they aren't, because a C<File::stat> object is different from
2043 a C<User::pwent> object.
2045 =item getsockname SOCKET
2047 Returns the packed sockaddr address of this end of the SOCKET connection,
2048 in case you don't know the address because you have several different
2049 IPs that the connection might have come in on.
2052 $mysockaddr = getsockname(SOCK);
2053 ($port, $myaddr) = sockaddr_in($mysockaddr);
2054 printf "Connect to %s [%s]\n",
2055 scalar gethostbyaddr($myaddr, AF_INET),
2058 =item getsockopt SOCKET,LEVEL,OPTNAME
2060 Returns the socket option requested, or undef if there is an error.
2066 In list context, returns a (possibly empty) list of filename expansions on
2067 the value of EXPR such as the standard Unix shell F</bin/csh> would do. In
2068 scalar context, glob iterates through such filename expansions, returning
2069 undef when the list is exhausted. This is the internal function
2070 implementing the C<< <*.c> >> operator, but you can use it directly. If
2071 EXPR is omitted, C<$_> is used. The C<< <*.c> >> operator is discussed in
2072 more detail in L<perlop/"I/O Operators">.
2074 Beginning with v5.6.0, this operator is implemented using the standard
2075 C<File::Glob> extension. See L<File::Glob> for details.
2079 Converts a time as returned by the time function to an 8-element list
2080 with the time localized for the standard Greenwich time zone.
2081 Typically used as follows:
2084 ($sec,$min,$hour,$mday,$mon,$year,$wday,$yday) =
2087 All list elements are numeric, and come straight out of the C `struct
2088 tm'. $sec, $min, and $hour are the seconds, minutes, and hours of the
2089 specified time. $mday is the day of the month, and $mon is the month
2090 itself, in the range C<0..11> with 0 indicating January and 11
2091 indicating December. $year is the number of years since 1900. That
2092 is, $year is C<123> in year 2023. $wday is the day of the week, with
2093 0 indicating Sunday and 3 indicating Wednesday. $yday is the day of
2094 the year, in the range C<0..364> (or C<0..365> in leap years.)
2096 Note that the $year element is I<not> simply the last two digits of
2097 the year. If you assume it is, then you create non-Y2K-compliant
2098 programs--and you wouldn't want to do that, would you?
2100 The proper way to get a complete 4-digit year is simply:
2104 And to get the last two digits of the year (e.g., '01' in 2001) do:
2106 $year = sprintf("%02d", $year % 100);
2108 If EXPR is omitted, C<gmtime()> uses the current time (C<gmtime(time)>).
2110 In scalar context, C<gmtime()> returns the ctime(3) value:
2112 $now_string = gmtime; # e.g., "Thu Oct 13 04:54:34 1994"
2114 Also see the C<timegm> function provided by the C<Time::Local> module,
2115 and the strftime(3) function available via the POSIX module.
2117 This scalar value is B<not> locale dependent (see L<perllocale>), but
2118 is instead a Perl builtin. Also see the C<Time::Local> module, and the
2119 strftime(3) and mktime(3) functions available via the POSIX module. To
2120 get somewhat similar but locale dependent date strings, set up your
2121 locale environment variables appropriately (please see L<perllocale>)
2122 and try for example:
2124 use POSIX qw(strftime);
2125 $now_string = strftime "%a %b %e %H:%M:%S %Y", gmtime;
2127 Note that the C<%a> and C<%b> escapes, which represent the short forms
2128 of the day of the week and the month of the year, may not necessarily
2129 be three characters wide in all locales.
2137 The C<goto-LABEL> form finds the statement labeled with LABEL and resumes
2138 execution there. It may not be used to go into any construct that
2139 requires initialization, such as a subroutine or a C<foreach> loop. It
2140 also can't be used to go into a construct that is optimized away,
2141 or to get out of a block or subroutine given to C<sort>.
2142 It can be used to go almost anywhere else within the dynamic scope,
2143 including out of subroutines, but it's usually better to use some other
2144 construct such as C<last> or C<die>. The author of Perl has never felt the
2145 need to use this form of C<goto> (in Perl, that is--C is another matter).
2146 (The difference being that C does not offer named loops combined with
2147 loop control. Perl does, and this replaces most structured uses of C<goto>
2148 in other languages.)
2150 The C<goto-EXPR> form expects a label name, whose scope will be resolved
2151 dynamically. This allows for computed C<goto>s per FORTRAN, but isn't
2152 necessarily recommended if you're optimizing for maintainability:
2154 goto ("FOO", "BAR", "GLARCH")[$i];
2156 The C<goto-&NAME> form is quite different from the other forms of
2157 C<goto>. In fact, it isn't a goto in the normal sense at all, and
2158 doesn't have the stigma associated with other gotos. Instead, it
2159 exits the current subroutine (losing any changes set by local()) and
2160 immediately calls in its place the named subroutine using the current
2161 value of @_. This is used by C<AUTOLOAD> subroutines that wish to
2162 load another subroutine and then pretend that the other subroutine had
2163 been called in the first place (except that any modifications to C<@_>
2164 in the current subroutine are propagated to the other subroutine.)
2165 After the C<goto>, not even C<caller> will be able to tell that this
2166 routine was called first.
2168 NAME needn't be the name of a subroutine; it can be a scalar variable
2169 containing a code reference, or a block which evaluates to a code
2172 =item grep BLOCK LIST
2174 =item grep EXPR,LIST
2176 This is similar in spirit to, but not the same as, grep(1) and its
2177 relatives. In particular, it is not limited to using regular expressions.
2179 Evaluates the BLOCK or EXPR for each element of LIST (locally setting
2180 C<$_> to each element) and returns the list value consisting of those
2181 elements for which the expression evaluated to true. In scalar
2182 context, returns the number of times the expression was true.
2184 @foo = grep(!/^#/, @bar); # weed out comments
2188 @foo = grep {!/^#/} @bar; # weed out comments
2190 Note that C<$_> is an alias to the list value, so it can be used to
2191 modify the elements of the LIST. While this is useful and supported,
2192 it can cause bizarre results if the elements of LIST are not variables.
2193 Similarly, grep returns aliases into the original list, much as a for
2194 loop's index variable aliases the list elements. That is, modifying an
2195 element of a list returned by grep (for example, in a C<foreach>, C<map>
2196 or another C<grep>) actually modifies the element in the original list.
2197 This is usually something to be avoided when writing clear code.
2199 See also L</map> for a list composed of the results of the BLOCK or EXPR.
2205 Interprets EXPR as a hex string and returns the corresponding value.
2206 (To convert strings that might start with either 0, 0x, or 0b, see
2207 L</oct>.) If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
2209 print hex '0xAf'; # prints '175'
2210 print hex 'aF'; # same
2212 Hex strings may only represent integers. Strings that would cause
2213 integer overflow trigger a warning. Leading whitespace is not stripped,
2218 There is no builtin C<import> function. It is just an ordinary
2219 method (subroutine) defined (or inherited) by modules that wish to export
2220 names to another module. The C<use> function calls the C<import> method
2221 for the package used. See also L</use>, L<perlmod>, and L<Exporter>.
2223 =item index STR,SUBSTR,POSITION
2225 =item index STR,SUBSTR
2227 The index function searches for one string within another, but without
2228 the wildcard-like behavior of a full regular-expression pattern match.
2229 It returns the position of the first occurrence of SUBSTR in STR at
2230 or after POSITION. If POSITION is omitted, starts searching from the
2231 beginning of the string. The return value is based at C<0> (or whatever
2232 you've set the C<$[> variable to--but don't do that). If the substring
2233 is not found, returns one less than the base, ordinarily C<-1>.
2239 Returns the integer portion of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
2240 You should not use this function for rounding: one because it truncates
2241 towards C<0>, and two because machine representations of floating point
2242 numbers can sometimes produce counterintuitive results. For example,
2243 C<int(-6.725/0.025)> produces -268 rather than the correct -269; that's
2244 because it's really more like -268.99999999999994315658 instead. Usually,
2245 the C<sprintf>, C<printf>, or the C<POSIX::floor> and C<POSIX::ceil>
2246 functions will serve you better than will int().
2248 =item ioctl FILEHANDLE,FUNCTION,SCALAR
2250 Implements the ioctl(2) function. You'll probably first have to say
2252 require "ioctl.ph"; # probably in /usr/local/lib/perl/ioctl.ph
2254 to get the correct function definitions. If F<ioctl.ph> doesn't
2255 exist or doesn't have the correct definitions you'll have to roll your
2256 own, based on your C header files such as F<< <sys/ioctl.h> >>.
2257 (There is a Perl script called B<h2ph> that comes with the Perl kit that
2258 may help you in this, but it's nontrivial.) SCALAR will be read and/or
2259 written depending on the FUNCTION--a pointer to the string value of SCALAR
2260 will be passed as the third argument of the actual C<ioctl> call. (If SCALAR
2261 has no string value but does have a numeric value, that value will be
2262 passed rather than a pointer to the string value. To guarantee this to be
2263 true, add a C<0> to the scalar before using it.) The C<pack> and C<unpack>
2264 functions may be needed to manipulate the values of structures used by
2267 The return value of C<ioctl> (and C<fcntl>) is as follows:
2269 if OS returns: then Perl returns:
2271 0 string "0 but true"
2272 anything else that number
2274 Thus Perl returns true on success and false on failure, yet you can
2275 still easily determine the actual value returned by the operating
2278 $retval = ioctl(...) || -1;
2279 printf "System returned %d\n", $retval;
2281 The special string "C<0> but true" is exempt from B<-w> complaints
2282 about improper numeric conversions.
2284 Here's an example of setting a filehandle named C<REMOTE> to be
2285 non-blocking at the system level. You'll have to negotiate C<$|>
2286 on your own, though.
2288 use Fcntl qw(F_GETFL F_SETFL O_NONBLOCK);
2290 $flags = fcntl(REMOTE, F_GETFL, 0)
2291 or die "Can't get flags for the socket: $!\n";
2293 $flags = fcntl(REMOTE, F_SETFL, $flags | O_NONBLOCK)
2294 or die "Can't set flags for the socket: $!\n";
2296 =item join EXPR,LIST
2298 Joins the separate strings of LIST into a single string with fields
2299 separated by the value of EXPR, and returns that new string. Example:
2301 $rec = join(':', $login,$passwd,$uid,$gid,$gcos,$home,$shell);
2303 Beware that unlike C<split>, C<join> doesn't take a pattern as its
2304 first argument. Compare L</split>.
2308 Returns a list consisting of all the keys of the named hash. (In
2309 scalar context, returns the number of keys.) The keys are returned in
2310 an apparently random order. The actual random order is subject to
2311 change in future versions of perl, but it is guaranteed to be the same
2312 order as either the C<values> or C<each> function produces (given
2313 that the hash has not been modified). As a side effect, it resets
2316 Here is yet another way to print your environment:
2319 @values = values %ENV;
2321 print pop(@keys), '=', pop(@values), "\n";
2324 or how about sorted by key:
2326 foreach $key (sort(keys %ENV)) {
2327 print $key, '=', $ENV{$key}, "\n";
2330 The returned values are copies of the original keys in the hash, so
2331 modifying them will not affect the original hash. Compare L</values>.
2333 To sort a hash by value, you'll need to use a C<sort> function.
2334 Here's a descending numeric sort of a hash by its values:
2336 foreach $key (sort { $hash{$b} <=> $hash{$a} } keys %hash) {
2337 printf "%4d %s\n", $hash{$key}, $key;
2340 As an lvalue C<keys> allows you to increase the number of hash buckets
2341 allocated for the given hash. This can gain you a measure of efficiency if
2342 you know the hash is going to get big. (This is similar to pre-extending
2343 an array by assigning a larger number to $#array.) If you say
2347 then C<%hash> will have at least 200 buckets allocated for it--256 of them,
2348 in fact, since it rounds up to the next power of two. These
2349 buckets will be retained even if you do C<%hash = ()>, use C<undef
2350 %hash> if you want to free the storage while C<%hash> is still in scope.
2351 You can't shrink the number of buckets allocated for the hash using
2352 C<keys> in this way (but you needn't worry about doing this by accident,
2353 as trying has no effect).
2355 See also C<each>, C<values> and C<sort>.
2357 =item kill SIGNAL, LIST
2359 Sends a signal to a list of processes. Returns the number of
2360 processes successfully signaled (which is not necessarily the
2361 same as the number actually killed).
2363 $cnt = kill 1, $child1, $child2;
2366 If SIGNAL is zero, no signal is sent to the process. This is a
2367 useful way to check that the process is alive and hasn't changed
2368 its UID. See L<perlport> for notes on the portability of this
2371 Unlike in the shell, if SIGNAL is negative, it kills
2372 process groups instead of processes. (On System V, a negative I<PROCESS>
2373 number will also kill process groups, but that's not portable.) That
2374 means you usually want to use positive not negative signals. You may also
2375 use a signal name in quotes. See L<perlipc/"Signals"> for details.
2381 The C<last> command is like the C<break> statement in C (as used in
2382 loops); it immediately exits the loop in question. If the LABEL is
2383 omitted, the command refers to the innermost enclosing loop. The
2384 C<continue> block, if any, is not executed:
2386 LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
2387 last LINE if /^$/; # exit when done with header
2391 C<last> cannot be used to exit a block which returns a value such as
2392 C<eval {}>, C<sub {}> or C<do {}>, and should not be used to exit
2393 a grep() or map() operation.
2395 Note that a block by itself is semantically identical to a loop
2396 that executes once. Thus C<last> can be used to effect an early
2397 exit out of such a block.
2399 See also L</continue> for an illustration of how C<last>, C<next>, and
2406 Returns a lowercased version of EXPR. This is the internal function
2407 implementing the C<\L> escape in double-quoted strings. Respects
2408 current LC_CTYPE locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale>
2409 and L<perlunicode> for more details about locale and Unicode support.
2411 If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
2417 Returns the value of EXPR with the first character lowercased. This
2418 is the internal function implementing the C<\l> escape in
2419 double-quoted strings. Respects current LC_CTYPE locale if C<use
2420 locale> in force. See L<perllocale> and L<perlunicode> for more
2421 details about locale and Unicode support.
2423 If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
2429 Returns the length in characters of the value of EXPR. If EXPR is
2430 omitted, returns length of C<$_>. Note that this cannot be used on
2431 an entire array or hash to find out how many elements these have.
2432 For that, use C<scalar @array> and C<scalar keys %hash> respectively.
2434 =item link OLDFILE,NEWFILE
2436 Creates a new filename linked to the old filename. Returns true for
2437 success, false otherwise.
2439 =item listen SOCKET,QUEUESIZE
2441 Does the same thing that the listen system call does. Returns true if
2442 it succeeded, false otherwise. See the example in
2443 L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">.
2447 You really probably want to be using C<my> instead, because C<local> isn't
2448 what most people think of as "local". See
2449 L<perlsub/"Private Variables via my()"> for details.
2451 A local modifies the listed variables to be local to the enclosing
2452 block, file, or eval. If more than one value is listed, the list must
2453 be placed in parentheses. See L<perlsub/"Temporary Values via local()">
2454 for details, including issues with tied arrays and hashes.
2456 =item localtime EXPR
2458 Converts a time as returned by the time function to a 9-element list
2459 with the time analyzed for the local time zone. Typically used as
2463 ($sec,$min,$hour,$mday,$mon,$year,$wday,$yday,$isdst) =
2466 All list elements are numeric, and come straight out of the C `struct
2467 tm'. $sec, $min, and $hour are the seconds, minutes, and hours of the
2468 specified time. $mday is the day of the month, and $mon is the month
2469 itself, in the range C<0..11> with 0 indicating January and 11
2470 indicating December. $year is the number of years since 1900. That
2471 is, $year is C<123> in year 2023. $wday is the day of the week, with
2472 0 indicating Sunday and 3 indicating Wednesday. $yday is the day of
2473 the year, in the range C<0..364> (or C<0..365> in leap years.) $isdst
2474 is true if the specified time occurs during daylight savings time,
2477 Note that the $year element is I<not> simply the last two digits of
2478 the year. If you assume it is, then you create non-Y2K-compliant
2479 programs--and you wouldn't want to do that, would you?
2481 The proper way to get a complete 4-digit year is simply:
2485 And to get the last two digits of the year (e.g., '01' in 2001) do:
2487 $year = sprintf("%02d", $year % 100);
2489 If EXPR is omitted, C<localtime()> uses the current time (C<localtime(time)>).
2491 In scalar context, C<localtime()> returns the ctime(3) value:
2493 $now_string = localtime; # e.g., "Thu Oct 13 04:54:34 1994"
2495 This scalar value is B<not> locale dependent, see L<perllocale>, but
2496 instead a Perl builtin. Also see the C<Time::Local> module
2497 (to convert the second, minutes, hours, ... back to seconds since the
2498 stroke of midnight the 1st of January 1970, the value returned by
2499 time()), and the strftime(3) and mktime(3) functions available via the
2500 POSIX module. To get somewhat similar but locale dependent date
2501 strings, set up your locale environment variables appropriately
2502 (please see L<perllocale>) and try for example:
2504 use POSIX qw(strftime);
2505 $now_string = strftime "%a %b %e %H:%M:%S %Y", localtime;
2507 Note that the C<%a> and C<%b>, the short forms of the day of the week
2508 and the month of the year, may not necessarily be three characters wide.
2512 This function places an advisory lock on a shared variable, or referenced
2513 object contained in I<THING> until the lock goes out of scope.
2515 lock() is a "weak keyword" : this means that if you've defined a function
2516 by this name (before any calls to it), that function will be called
2517 instead. (However, if you've said C<use threads>, lock() is always a
2518 keyword.) See L<threads>.
2524 Returns the natural logarithm (base I<e>) of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted,
2525 returns log of C<$_>. To get the log of another base, use basic algebra:
2526 The base-N log of a number is equal to the natural log of that number
2527 divided by the natural log of N. For example:
2531 return log($n)/log(10);
2534 See also L</exp> for the inverse operation.
2540 Does the same thing as the C<stat> function (including setting the
2541 special C<_> filehandle) but stats a symbolic link instead of the file
2542 the symbolic link points to. If symbolic links are unimplemented on
2543 your system, a normal C<stat> is done. For much more detailed
2544 information, please see the documentation for C<stat>.
2546 If EXPR is omitted, stats C<$_>.
2550 The match operator. See L<perlop>.
2552 =item map BLOCK LIST
2556 Evaluates the BLOCK or EXPR for each element of LIST (locally setting
2557 C<$_> to each element) and returns the list value composed of the
2558 results of each such evaluation. In scalar context, returns the
2559 total number of elements so generated. Evaluates BLOCK or EXPR in
2560 list context, so each element of LIST may produce zero, one, or
2561 more elements in the returned value.
2563 @chars = map(chr, @nums);
2565 translates a list of numbers to the corresponding characters. And
2567 %hash = map { getkey($_) => $_ } @array;
2569 is just a funny way to write
2572 foreach $_ (@array) {
2573 $hash{getkey($_)} = $_;
2576 Note that C<$_> is an alias to the list value, so it can be used to
2577 modify the elements of the LIST. While this is useful and supported,
2578 it can cause bizarre results if the elements of LIST are not variables.
2579 Using a regular C<foreach> loop for this purpose would be clearer in
2580 most cases. See also L</grep> for an array composed of those items of
2581 the original list for which the BLOCK or EXPR evaluates to true.
2583 C<{> starts both hash references and blocks, so C<map { ...> could be either
2584 the start of map BLOCK LIST or map EXPR, LIST. Because perl doesn't look
2585 ahead for the closing C<}> it has to take a guess at which its dealing with
2586 based what it finds just after the C<{>. Usually it gets it right, but if it
2587 doesn't it won't realize something is wrong until it gets to the C<}> and
2588 encounters the missing (or unexpected) comma. The syntax error will be
2589 reported close to the C<}> but you'll need to change something near the C<{>
2590 such as using a unary C<+> to give perl some help:
2592 %hash = map { "\L$_", 1 } @array # perl guesses EXPR. wrong
2593 %hash = map { +"\L$_", 1 } @array # perl guesses BLOCK. right
2594 %hash = map { ("\L$_", 1) } @array # this also works
2595 %hash = map { lc($_), 1 } @array # as does this.
2596 %hash = map +( lc($_), 1 ), @array # this is EXPR and works!
2598 %hash = map ( lc($_), 1 ), @array # evaluates to (1, @array)
2600 or to force an anon hash constructor use C<+{>
2602 @hashes = map +{ lc($_), 1 }, @array # EXPR, so needs , at end
2604 and you get list of anonymous hashes each with only 1 entry.
2606 =item mkdir FILENAME,MASK
2608 =item mkdir FILENAME
2610 Creates the directory specified by FILENAME, with permissions
2611 specified by MASK (as modified by C<umask>). If it succeeds it
2612 returns true, otherwise it returns false and sets C<$!> (errno).
2613 If omitted, MASK defaults to 0777.
2615 In general, it is better to create directories with permissive MASK,
2616 and let the user modify that with their C<umask>, than it is to supply
2617 a restrictive MASK and give the user no way to be more permissive.
2618 The exceptions to this rule are when the file or directory should be
2619 kept private (mail files, for instance). The perlfunc(1) entry on
2620 C<umask> discusses the choice of MASK in more detail.
2622 Note that according to the POSIX 1003.1-1996 the FILENAME may have any
2623 number of trailing slashes. Some operating and filesystems do not get
2624 this right, so Perl automatically removes all trailing slashes to keep
2627 =item msgctl ID,CMD,ARG
2629 Calls the System V IPC function msgctl(2). You'll probably have to say
2633 first to get the correct constant definitions. If CMD is C<IPC_STAT>,
2634 then ARG must be a variable which will hold the returned C<msqid_ds>
2635 structure. Returns like C<ioctl>: the undefined value for error,
2636 C<"0 but true"> for zero, or the actual return value otherwise. See also
2637 L<perlipc/"SysV IPC">, C<IPC::SysV>, and C<IPC::Semaphore> documentation.
2639 =item msgget KEY,FLAGS
2641 Calls the System V IPC function msgget(2). Returns the message queue
2642 id, or the undefined value if there is an error. See also
2643 L<perlipc/"SysV IPC"> and C<IPC::SysV> and C<IPC::Msg> documentation.
2645 =item msgrcv ID,VAR,SIZE,TYPE,FLAGS
2647 Calls the System V IPC function msgrcv to receive a message from
2648 message queue ID into variable VAR with a maximum message size of
2649 SIZE. Note that when a message is received, the message type as a
2650 native long integer will be the first thing in VAR, followed by the
2651 actual message. This packing may be opened with C<unpack("l! a*")>.
2652 Taints the variable. Returns true if successful, or false if there is
2653 an error. See also L<perlipc/"SysV IPC">, C<IPC::SysV>, and
2654 C<IPC::SysV::Msg> documentation.
2656 =item msgsnd ID,MSG,FLAGS
2658 Calls the System V IPC function msgsnd to send the message MSG to the
2659 message queue ID. MSG must begin with the native long integer message
2660 type, and be followed by the length of the actual message, and finally
2661 the message itself. This kind of packing can be achieved with
2662 C<pack("l! a*", $type, $message)>. Returns true if successful,
2663 or false if there is an error. See also C<IPC::SysV>
2664 and C<IPC::SysV::Msg> documentation.
2670 =item my EXPR : ATTRS
2672 =item my TYPE EXPR : ATTRS
2674 A C<my> declares the listed variables to be local (lexically) to the
2675 enclosing block, file, or C<eval>. If more than one value is listed,
2676 the list must be placed in parentheses.
2678 The exact semantics and interface of TYPE and ATTRS are still
2679 evolving. TYPE is currently bound to the use of C<fields> pragma,
2680 and attributes are handled using the C<attributes> pragma, or starting
2681 from Perl 5.8.0 also via the C<Attribute::Handlers> module. See
2682 L<perlsub/"Private Variables via my()"> for details, and L<fields>,
2683 L<attributes>, and L<Attribute::Handlers>.
2689 The C<next> command is like the C<continue> statement in C; it starts
2690 the next iteration of the loop:
2692 LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
2693 next LINE if /^#/; # discard comments
2697 Note that if there were a C<continue> block on the above, it would get
2698 executed even on discarded lines. If the LABEL is omitted, the command
2699 refers to the innermost enclosing loop.
2701 C<next> cannot be used to exit a block which returns a value such as
2702 C<eval {}>, C<sub {}> or C<do {}>, and should not be used to exit
2703 a grep() or map() operation.
2705 Note that a block by itself is semantically identical to a loop
2706 that executes once. Thus C<next> will exit such a block early.
2708 See also L</continue> for an illustration of how C<last>, C<next>, and
2711 =item no Module VERSION LIST
2713 =item no Module VERSION
2715 =item no Module LIST
2719 See the C<use> function, which C<no> is the opposite of.
2725 Interprets EXPR as an octal string and returns the corresponding
2726 value. (If EXPR happens to start off with C<0x>, interprets it as a
2727 hex string. If EXPR starts off with C<0b>, it is interpreted as a
2728 binary string. Leading whitespace is ignored in all three cases.)
2729 The following will handle decimal, binary, octal, and hex in the standard
2732 $val = oct($val) if $val =~ /^0/;
2734 If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>. To go the other way (produce a number
2735 in octal), use sprintf() or printf():
2737 $perms = (stat("filename"))[2] & 07777;
2738 $oct_perms = sprintf "%lo", $perms;
2740 The oct() function is commonly used when a string such as C<644> needs
2741 to be converted into a file mode, for example. (Although perl will
2742 automatically convert strings into numbers as needed, this automatic
2743 conversion assumes base 10.)
2745 =item open FILEHANDLE,EXPR
2747 =item open FILEHANDLE,MODE,EXPR
2749 =item open FILEHANDLE,MODE,EXPR,LIST
2751 =item open FILEHANDLE,MODE,REFERENCE
2753 =item open FILEHANDLE
2755 Opens the file whose filename is given by EXPR, and associates it with
2758 (The following is a comprehensive reference to open(): for a gentler
2759 introduction you may consider L<perlopentut>.)
2761 If FILEHANDLE is an undefined scalar variable (or array or hash element)
2762 the variable is assigned a reference to a new anonymous filehandle,
2763 otherwise if FILEHANDLE is an expression, its value is used as the name of
2764 the real filehandle wanted. (This is considered a symbolic reference, so
2765 C<use strict 'refs'> should I<not> be in effect.)
2767 If EXPR is omitted, the scalar variable of the same name as the
2768 FILEHANDLE contains the filename. (Note that lexical variables--those
2769 declared with C<my>--will not work for this purpose; so if you're
2770 using C<my>, specify EXPR in your call to open.)
2772 If three or more arguments are specified then the mode of opening and
2773 the file name are separate. If MODE is C<< '<' >> or nothing, the file
2774 is opened for input. If MODE is C<< '>' >>, the file is truncated and
2775 opened for output, being created if necessary. If MODE is C<<< '>>' >>>,
2776 the file is opened for appending, again being created if necessary.
2778 You can put a C<'+'> in front of the C<< '>' >> or C<< '<' >> to
2779 indicate that you want both read and write access to the file; thus
2780 C<< '+<' >> is almost always preferred for read/write updates--the C<<
2781 '+>' >> mode would clobber the file first. You can't usually use
2782 either read-write mode for updating textfiles, since they have
2783 variable length records. See the B<-i> switch in L<perlrun> for a
2784 better approach. The file is created with permissions of C<0666>
2785 modified by the process' C<umask> value.
2787 These various prefixes correspond to the fopen(3) modes of C<'r'>,
2788 C<'r+'>, C<'w'>, C<'w+'>, C<'a'>, and C<'a+'>.
2790 In the 2-arguments (and 1-argument) form of the call the mode and
2791 filename should be concatenated (in this order), possibly separated by
2792 spaces. It is possible to omit the mode in these forms if the mode is
2795 If the filename begins with C<'|'>, the filename is interpreted as a
2796 command to which output is to be piped, and if the filename ends with a
2797 C<'|'>, the filename is interpreted as a command which pipes output to
2798 us. See L<perlipc/"Using open() for IPC">
2799 for more examples of this. (You are not allowed to C<open> to a command
2800 that pipes both in I<and> out, but see L<IPC::Open2>, L<IPC::Open3>,
2801 and L<perlipc/"Bidirectional Communication with Another Process">
2804 For three or more arguments if MODE is C<'|-'>, the filename is
2805 interpreted as a command to which output is to be piped, and if MODE
2806 is C<'-|'>, the filename is interpreted as a command which pipes
2807 output to us. In the 2-arguments (and 1-argument) form one should
2808 replace dash (C<'-'>) with the command.
2809 See L<perlipc/"Using open() for IPC"> for more examples of this.
2810 (You are not allowed to C<open> to a command that pipes both in I<and>
2811 out, but see L<IPC::Open2>, L<IPC::Open3>, and
2812 L<perlipc/"Bidirectional Communication"> for alternatives.)
2814 In the three-or-more argument form of pipe opens, if LIST is specified
2815 (extra arguments after the command name) then LIST becomes arguments
2816 to the command invoked if the platform supports it. The meaning of
2817 C<open> with more than three arguments for non-pipe modes is not yet
2818 specified. Experimental "layers" may give extra LIST arguments
2821 In the 2-arguments (and 1-argument) form opening C<'-'> opens STDIN
2822 and opening C<< '>-' >> opens STDOUT.
2824 You may use the three-argument form of open to specify IO "layers"
2825 (sometimes also referred to as "disciplines") to be applied to the handle
2826 that affect how the input and output are processed (see L<open> and
2827 L<PerlIO> for more details). For example
2829 open(FH, "<:utf8", "file")
2831 will open the UTF-8 encoded file containing Unicode characters,
2832 see L<perluniintro>. (Note that if layers are specified in the
2833 three-arg form then default layers set by the C<open> pragma are
2836 Open returns nonzero upon success, the undefined value otherwise. If
2837 the C<open> involved a pipe, the return value happens to be the pid of
2840 If you're running Perl on a system that distinguishes between text
2841 files and binary files, then you should check out L</binmode> for tips
2842 for dealing with this. The key distinction between systems that need
2843 C<binmode> and those that don't is their text file formats. Systems
2844 like Unix, Mac OS, and Plan 9, which delimit lines with a single
2845 character, and which encode that character in C as C<"\n">, do not
2846 need C<binmode>. The rest need it.
2848 When opening a file, it's usually a bad idea to continue normal execution
2849 if the request failed, so C<open> is frequently used in connection with
2850 C<die>. Even if C<die> won't do what you want (say, in a CGI script,
2851 where you want to make a nicely formatted error message (but there are
2852 modules that can help with that problem)) you should always check
2853 the return value from opening a file. The infrequent exception is when
2854 working with an unopened filehandle is actually what you want to do.
2856 As a special case the 3 arg form with a read/write mode and the third
2857 argument being C<undef>:
2859 open(TMP, "+>", undef) or die ...
2861 opens a filehandle to an anonymous temporary file. Also using "+<"
2862 works for symmetry, but you really should consider writing something
2863 to the temporary file first. You will need to seek() to do the
2864 reading. Starting from Perl 5.8.1 the temporary files are created
2865 using the File::Temp module for greater portability, in Perl 5.8.0 the
2866 mkstemp() system call (which has known bugs in some platforms) was used.
2868 File handles can be opened to "in memory" files held in Perl scalars via:
2870 open($fh, '>', \$variable) || ..
2872 Though if you try to re-open C<STDOUT> or C<STDERR> as an "in memory"
2873 file, you have to close it first:
2876 open STDOUT, '>', \$variable or die "Can't open STDOUT: $!";
2881 open ARTICLE or die "Can't find article $ARTICLE: $!\n";
2882 while (<ARTICLE>) {...
2884 open(LOG, '>>/usr/spool/news/twitlog'); # (log is reserved)
2885 # if the open fails, output is discarded
2887 open(DBASE, '+<', 'dbase.mine') # open for update
2888 or die "Can't open 'dbase.mine' for update: $!";
2890 open(DBASE, '+<dbase.mine') # ditto
2891 or die "Can't open 'dbase.mine' for update: $!";
2893 open(ARTICLE, '-|', "caesar <$article") # decrypt article
2894 or die "Can't start caesar: $!";
2896 open(ARTICLE, "caesar <$article |") # ditto
2897 or die "Can't start caesar: $!";
2899 open(EXTRACT, "|sort >/tmp/Tmp$$") # $$ is our process id
2900 or die "Can't start sort: $!";
2903 open(MEMORY,'>', \$var)
2904 or die "Can't open memory file: $!";
2905 print MEMORY "foo!\n"; # output will end up in $var
2907 # process argument list of files along with any includes
2909 foreach $file (@ARGV) {
2910 process($file, 'fh00');
2914 my($filename, $input) = @_;
2915 $input++; # this is a string increment
2916 unless (open($input, $filename)) {
2917 print STDERR "Can't open $filename: $!\n";
2922 while (<$input>) { # note use of indirection
2923 if (/^#include "(.*)"/) {
2924 process($1, $input);
2931 You may also, in the Bourne shell tradition, specify an EXPR beginning
2932 with C<< '>&' >>, in which case the rest of the string is interpreted as the
2933 name of a filehandle (or file descriptor, if numeric) to be
2934 duped and opened. You may use C<&> after C<< > >>, C<<< >> >>>,
2935 C<< < >>, C<< +> >>, C<<< +>> >>>, and C<< +< >>. The
2936 mode you specify should match the mode of the original filehandle.
2937 (Duping a filehandle does not take into account any existing contents of
2938 IO buffers.) If you use the 3 arg form then you can pass either a number,
2939 the name of a filehandle or the normal "reference to a glob".
2941 Here is a script that saves, redirects, and restores C<STDOUT> and
2942 C<STDERR> using various methods:
2945 open my $oldout, ">&STDOUT" or die "Can't dup STDOUT: $!";
2946 open OLDERR, ">&", \*STDERR or die "Can't dup STDERR: $!";
2948 open STDOUT, '>', "foo.out" or die "Can't redirect STDOUT: $!";
2949 open STDERR, ">&STDOUT" or die "Can't dup STDOUT: $!";
2951 select STDERR; $| = 1; # make unbuffered
2952 select STDOUT; $| = 1; # make unbuffered
2954 print STDOUT "stdout 1\n"; # this works for
2955 print STDERR "stderr 1\n"; # subprocesses too
2960 open STDOUT, ">&", $oldout or die "Can't dup \$oldout: $!";
2961 open STDERR, ">&OLDERR" or die "Can't dup OLDERR: $!";
2963 print STDOUT "stdout 2\n";
2964 print STDERR "stderr 2\n";
2966 If you specify C<< '<&=N' >>, where C<N> is a number, then Perl will
2967 do an equivalent of C's C<fdopen> of that file descriptor; this is
2968 more parsimonious of file descriptors. For example:
2970 open(FILEHANDLE, "<&=$fd")
2974 open(FILEHANDLE, "<&=", $fd)
2976 Note that if Perl is using the standard C libraries' fdopen() then on
2977 many UNIX systems, fdopen() is known to fail when file descriptors
2978 exceed a certain value, typically 255. If you need more file
2979 descriptors than that, consider rebuilding Perl to use the C<PerlIO>.
2981 You can see whether Perl has been compiled with PerlIO or not by
2982 running C<perl -V> and looking for C<useperlio=> line. If C<useperlio>
2983 is C<define>, you have PerlIO, otherwise you don't.
2985 If you open a pipe on the command C<'-'>, i.e., either C<'|-'> or C<'-|'>
2986 with 2-arguments (or 1-argument) form of open(), then
2987 there is an implicit fork done, and the return value of open is the pid
2988 of the child within the parent process, and C<0> within the child
2989 process. (Use C<defined($pid)> to determine whether the open was successful.)
2990 The filehandle behaves normally for the parent, but i/o to that
2991 filehandle is piped from/to the STDOUT/STDIN of the child process.
2992 In the child process the filehandle isn't opened--i/o happens from/to
2993 the new STDOUT or STDIN. Typically this is used like the normal
2994 piped open when you want to exercise more control over just how the
2995 pipe command gets executed, such as when you are running setuid, and
2996 don't want to have to scan shell commands for metacharacters.
2997 The following triples are more or less equivalent:
2999 open(FOO, "|tr '[a-z]' '[A-Z]'");
3000 open(FOO, '|-', "tr '[a-z]' '[A-Z]'");
3001 open(FOO, '|-') || exec 'tr', '[a-z]', '[A-Z]';
3002 open(FOO, '|-', "tr", '[a-z]', '[A-Z]');
3004 open(FOO, "cat -n '$file'|");
3005 open(FOO, '-|', "cat -n '$file'");
3006 open(FOO, '-|') || exec 'cat', '-n', $file;
3007 open(FOO, '-|', "cat", '-n', $file);
3009 The last example in each block shows the pipe as "list form", which is
3010 not yet supported on all platforms. A good rule of thumb is that if
3011 your platform has true C<fork()> (in other words, if your platform is
3012 UNIX) you can use the list form.
3014 See L<perlipc/"Safe Pipe Opens"> for more examples of this.
3016 Beginning with v5.6.0, Perl will attempt to flush all files opened for
3017 output before any operation that may do a fork, but this may not be
3018 supported on some platforms (see L<perlport>). To be safe, you may need
3019 to set C<$|> ($AUTOFLUSH in English) or call the C<autoflush()> method
3020 of C<IO::Handle> on any open handles.
3022 On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will
3023 be set for the newly opened file descriptor as determined by the value
3024 of $^F. See L<perlvar/$^F>.
3026 Closing any piped filehandle causes the parent process to wait for the
3027 child to finish, and returns the status value in C<$?>.
3029 The filename passed to 2-argument (or 1-argument) form of open() will
3030 have leading and trailing whitespace deleted, and the normal
3031 redirection characters honored. This property, known as "magic open",
3032 can often be used to good effect. A user could specify a filename of
3033 F<"rsh cat file |">, or you could change certain filenames as needed:
3035 $filename =~ s/(.*\.gz)\s*$/gzip -dc < $1|/;
3036 open(FH, $filename) or die "Can't open $filename: $!";
3038 Use 3-argument form to open a file with arbitrary weird characters in it,
3040 open(FOO, '<', $file);
3042 otherwise it's necessary to protect any leading and trailing whitespace:
3044 $file =~ s#^(\s)#./$1#;
3045 open(FOO, "< $file\0");
3047 (this may not work on some bizarre filesystems). One should
3048 conscientiously choose between the I<magic> and 3-arguments form
3053 will allow the user to specify an argument of the form C<"rsh cat file |">,
3054 but will not work on a filename which happens to have a trailing space, while
3056 open IN, '<', $ARGV[0];
3058 will have exactly the opposite restrictions.
3060 If you want a "real" C C<open> (see L<open(2)> on your system), then you
3061 should use the C<sysopen> function, which involves no such magic (but
3062 may use subtly different filemodes than Perl open(), which is mapped
3063 to C fopen()). This is
3064 another way to protect your filenames from interpretation. For example:
3067 sysopen(HANDLE, $path, O_RDWR|O_CREAT|O_EXCL)
3068 or die "sysopen $path: $!";
3069 $oldfh = select(HANDLE); $| = 1; select($oldfh);
3070 print HANDLE "stuff $$\n";
3072 print "File contains: ", <HANDLE>;
3074 Using the constructor from the C<IO::Handle> package (or one of its
3075 subclasses, such as C<IO::File> or C<IO::Socket>), you can generate anonymous
3076 filehandles that have the scope of whatever variables hold references to
3077 them, and automatically close whenever and however you leave that scope:
3081 sub read_myfile_munged {
3083 my $handle = new IO::File;
3084 open($handle, "myfile") or die "myfile: $!";
3086 or return (); # Automatically closed here.
3087 mung $first or die "mung failed"; # Or here.
3088 return $first, <$handle> if $ALL; # Or here.
3092 See L</seek> for some details about mixing reading and writing.
3094 =item opendir DIRHANDLE,EXPR
3096 Opens a directory named EXPR for processing by C<readdir>, C<telldir>,
3097 C<seekdir>, C<rewinddir>, and C<closedir>. Returns true if successful.
3098 DIRHANDLE may be an expression whose value can be used as an indirect
3099 dirhandle, usually the real dirhandle name. If DIRHANDLE is an undefined
3100 scalar variable (or array or hash element), the variable is assigned a
3101 reference to a new anonymous dirhandle.
3102 DIRHANDLEs have their own namespace separate from FILEHANDLEs.
3108 Returns the numeric (the native 8-bit encoding, like ASCII or EBCDIC,
3109 or Unicode) value of the first character of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted,
3112 For the reverse, see L</chr>.
3113 See L<perlunicode> and L<encoding> for more about Unicode.
3119 =item our EXPR : ATTRS
3121 =item our TYPE EXPR : ATTRS
3123 An C<our> declares the listed variables to be valid globals within
3124 the enclosing block, file, or C<eval>. That is, it has the same
3125 scoping rules as a "my" declaration, but does not create a local
3126 variable. If more than one value is listed, the list must be placed
3127 in parentheses. The C<our> declaration has no semantic effect unless
3128 "use strict vars" is in effect, in which case it lets you use the
3129 declared global variable without qualifying it with a package name.
3130 (But only within the lexical scope of the C<our> declaration. In this
3131 it differs from "use vars", which is package scoped.)
3133 An C<our> declaration declares a global variable that will be visible
3134 across its entire lexical scope, even across package boundaries. The
3135 package in which the variable is entered is determined at the point
3136 of the declaration, not at the point of use. This means the following
3140 our $bar; # declares $Foo::bar for rest of lexical scope
3144 print $bar; # prints 20
3146 Multiple C<our> declarations in the same lexical scope are allowed
3147 if they are in different packages. If they happened to be in the same
3148 package, Perl will emit warnings if you have asked for them.
3152 our $bar; # declares $Foo::bar for rest of lexical scope
3156 our $bar = 30; # declares $Bar::bar for rest of lexical scope
3157 print $bar; # prints 30
3159 our $bar; # emits warning
3161 An C<our> declaration may also have a list of attributes associated
3164 The exact semantics and interface of TYPE and ATTRS are still
3165 evolving. TYPE is currently bound to the use of C<fields> pragma,
3166 and attributes are handled using the C<attributes> pragma, or starting
3167 from Perl 5.8.0 also via the C<Attribute::Handlers> module. See
3168 L<perlsub/"Private Variables via my()"> for details, and L<fields>,
3169 L<attributes>, and L<Attribute::Handlers>.
3171 The only currently recognized C<our()> attribute is C<unique> which
3172 indicates that a single copy of the global is to be used by all
3173 interpreters should the program happen to be running in a
3174 multi-interpreter environment. (The default behaviour would be for
3175 each interpreter to have its own copy of the global.) Examples:
3177 our @EXPORT : unique = qw(foo);
3178 our %EXPORT_TAGS : unique = (bar => [qw(aa bb cc)]);
3179 our $VERSION : unique = "1.00";
3181 Note that this attribute also has the effect of making the global
3182 readonly when the first new interpreter is cloned (for example,
3183 when the first new thread is created).
3185 Multi-interpreter environments can come to being either through the
3186 fork() emulation on Windows platforms, or by embedding perl in a
3187 multi-threaded application. The C<unique> attribute does nothing in
3188 all other environments.
3190 =item pack TEMPLATE,LIST
3192 Takes a LIST of values and converts it into a string using the rules
3193 given by the TEMPLATE. The resulting string is the concatenation of
3194 the converted values. Typically, each converted value looks
3195 like its machine-level representation. For example, on 32-bit machines
3196 a converted integer may be represented by a sequence of 4 bytes.
3198 The TEMPLATE is a sequence of characters that give the order and type
3199 of values, as follows:
3201 a A string with arbitrary binary data, will be null padded.
3202 A A text (ASCII) string, will be space padded.
3203 Z A null terminated (ASCIZ) string, will be null padded.
3205 b A bit string (ascending bit order inside each byte, like vec()).
3206 B A bit string (descending bit order inside each byte).
3207 h A hex string (low nybble first).
3208 H A hex string (high nybble first).
3210 c A signed char value.
3211 C An unsigned char value. Only does bytes. See U for Unicode.
3213 s A signed short value.
3214 S An unsigned short value.
3215 (This 'short' is _exactly_ 16 bits, which may differ from
3216 what a local C compiler calls 'short'. If you want
3217 native-length shorts, use the '!' suffix.)
3219 i A signed integer value.
3220 I An unsigned integer value.
3221 (This 'integer' is _at_least_ 32 bits wide. Its exact
3222 size depends on what a local C compiler calls 'int',
3223 and may even be larger than the 'long' described in
3226 l A signed long value.
3227 L An unsigned long value.
3228 (This 'long' is _exactly_ 32 bits, which may differ from
3229 what a local C compiler calls 'long'. If you want
3230 native-length longs, use the '!' suffix.)
3232 n An unsigned short in "network" (big-endian) order.
3233 N An unsigned long in "network" (big-endian) order.
3234 v An unsigned short in "VAX" (little-endian) order.
3235 V An unsigned long in "VAX" (little-endian) order.
3236 (These 'shorts' and 'longs' are _exactly_ 16 bits and
3237 _exactly_ 32 bits, respectively.)
3239 q A signed quad (64-bit) value.
3240 Q An unsigned quad value.
3241 (Quads are available only if your system supports 64-bit
3242 integer values _and_ if Perl has been compiled to support those.
3243 Causes a fatal error otherwise.)
3245 j A signed integer value (a Perl internal integer, IV).
3246 J An unsigned integer value (a Perl internal unsigned integer, UV).
3248 f A single-precision float in the native format.
3249 d A double-precision float in the native format.
3251 F A floating point value in the native native format
3252 (a Perl internal floating point value, NV).
3253 D A long double-precision float in the native format.
3254 (Long doubles are available only if your system supports long
3255 double values _and_ if Perl has been compiled to support those.
3256 Causes a fatal error otherwise.)
3258 p A pointer to a null-terminated string.
3259 P A pointer to a structure (fixed-length string).
3261 u A uuencoded string.
3262 U A Unicode character number. Encodes to UTF-8 internally
3263 (or UTF-EBCDIC in EBCDIC platforms).
3265 w A BER compressed integer. Its bytes represent an unsigned
3266 integer in base 128, most significant digit first, with as
3267 few digits as possible. Bit eight (the high bit) is set
3268 on each byte except the last.
3272 @ Null fill to absolute position, counted from the start of
3273 the innermost ()-group.
3274 ( Start of a ()-group.
3276 The following rules apply:
3282 Each letter may optionally be followed by a number giving a repeat
3283 count. With all types except C<a>, C<A>, C<Z>, C<b>, C<B>, C<h>,
3284 C<H>, C<@>, C<x>, C<X> and C<P> the pack function will gobble up that
3285 many values from the LIST. A C<*> for the repeat count means to use
3286 however many items are left, except for C<@>, C<x>, C<X>, where it is
3287 equivalent to C<0>, and C<u>, where it is equivalent to 1 (or 45, what
3288 is the same). A numeric repeat count may optionally be enclosed in
3289 brackets, as in C<pack 'C[80]', @arr>.
3291 One can replace the numeric repeat count by a template enclosed in brackets;
3292 then the packed length of this template in bytes is used as a count.
3293 For example, C<x[L]> skips a long (it skips the number of bytes in a long);
3294 the template C<$t X[$t] $t> unpack()s twice what $t unpacks.
3295 If the template in brackets contains alignment commands (such as C<x![d]>),
3296 its packed length is calculated as if the start of the template has the maximal
3299 When used with C<Z>, C<*> results in the addition of a trailing null
3300 byte (so the packed result will be one longer than the byte C<length>
3303 The repeat count for C<u> is interpreted as the maximal number of bytes
3304 to encode per line of output, with 0 and 1 replaced by 45.
3308 The C<a>, C<A>, and C<Z> types gobble just one value, but pack it as a
3309 string of length count, padding with nulls or spaces as necessary. When
3310 unpacking, C<A> strips trailing spaces and nulls, C<Z> strips everything
3311 after the first null, and C<a> returns data verbatim. When packing,
3312 C<a>, and C<Z> are equivalent.
3314 If the value-to-pack is too long, it is truncated. If too long and an
3315 explicit count is provided, C<Z> packs only C<$count-1> bytes, followed
3316 by a null byte. Thus C<Z> always packs a trailing null byte under
3321 Likewise, the C<b> and C<B> fields pack a string that many bits long.
3322 Each byte of the input field of pack() generates 1 bit of the result.
3323 Each result bit is based on the least-significant bit of the corresponding
3324 input byte, i.e., on C<ord($byte)%2>. In particular, bytes C<"0"> and
3325 C<"1"> generate bits 0 and 1, as do bytes C<"\0"> and C<"\1">.
3327 Starting from the beginning of the input string of pack(), each 8-tuple
3328 of bytes is converted to 1 byte of output. With format C<b>
3329 the first byte of the 8-tuple determines the least-significant bit of a
3330 byte, and with format C<B> it determines the most-significant bit of
3333 If the length of the input string is not exactly divisible by 8, the
3334 remainder is packed as if the input string were padded by null bytes
3335 at the end. Similarly, during unpack()ing the "extra" bits are ignored.
3337 If the input string of pack() is longer than needed, extra bytes are ignored.
3338 A C<*> for the repeat count of pack() means to use all the bytes of
3339 the input field. On unpack()ing the bits are converted to a string
3340 of C<"0">s and C<"1">s.
3344 The C<h> and C<H> fields pack a string that many nybbles (4-bit groups,
3345 representable as hexadecimal digits, 0-9a-f) long.
3347 Each byte of the input field of pack() generates 4 bits of the result.
3348 For non-alphabetical bytes the result is based on the 4 least-significant
3349 bits of the input byte, i.e., on C<ord($byte)%16>. In particular,
3350 bytes C<"0"> and C<"1"> generate nybbles 0 and 1, as do bytes
3351 C<"\0"> and C<"\1">. For bytes C<"a".."f"> and C<"A".."F"> the result
3352 is compatible with the usual hexadecimal digits, so that C<"a"> and
3353 C<"A"> both generate the nybble C<0xa==10>. The result for bytes
3354 C<"g".."z"> and C<"G".."Z"> is not well-defined.
3356 Starting from the beginning of the input string of pack(), each pair
3357 of bytes is converted to 1 byte of output. With format C<h> the
3358 first byte of the pair determines the least-significant nybble of the
3359 output byte, and with format C<H> it determines the most-significant
3362 If the length of the input string is not even, it behaves as if padded
3363 by a null byte at the end. Similarly, during unpack()ing the "extra"
3364 nybbles are ignored.
3366 If the input string of pack() is longer than needed, extra bytes are ignored.
3367 A C<*> for the repeat count of pack() means to use all the bytes of
3368 the input field. On unpack()ing the bits are converted to a string
3369 of hexadecimal digits.
3373 The C<p> type packs a pointer to a null-terminated string. You are
3374 responsible for ensuring the string is not a temporary value (which can
3375 potentially get deallocated before you get around to using the packed result).
3376 The C<P> type packs a pointer to a structure of the size indicated by the
3377 length. A NULL pointer is created if the corresponding value for C<p> or
3378 C<P> is C<undef>, similarly for unpack().
3382 The C</> template character allows packing and unpacking of strings where
3383 the packed structure contains a byte count followed by the string itself.
3384 You write I<length-item>C</>I<string-item>.
3386 The I<length-item> can be any C<pack> template letter, and describes
3387 how the length value is packed. The ones likely to be of most use are
3388 integer-packing ones like C<n> (for Java strings), C<w> (for ASN.1 or
3389 SNMP) and C<N> (for Sun XDR).
3391 For C<pack>, the I<string-item> must, at present, be C<"A*">, C<"a*"> or
3392 C<"Z*">. For C<unpack> the length of the string is obtained from the
3393 I<length-item>, but if you put in the '*' it will be ignored. For all other
3394 codes, C<unpack> applies the length value to the next item, which must not
3395 have a repeat count.
3397 unpack 'C/a', "\04Gurusamy"; gives 'Guru'
3398 unpack 'a3/A* A*', '007 Bond J '; gives (' Bond','J')
3399 pack 'n/a* w/a*','hello,','world'; gives "\000\006hello,\005world"
3401 The I<length-item> is not returned explicitly from C<unpack>.
3403 Adding a count to the I<length-item> letter is unlikely to do anything
3404 useful, unless that letter is C<A>, C<a> or C<Z>. Packing with a
3405 I<length-item> of C<a> or C<Z> may introduce C<"\000"> characters,
3406 which Perl does not regard as legal in numeric strings.
3410 The integer types C<s>, C<S>, C<l>, and C<L> may be
3411 immediately followed by a C<!> suffix to signify native shorts or
3412 longs--as you can see from above for example a bare C<l> does mean
3413 exactly 32 bits, the native C<long> (as seen by the local C compiler)
3414 may be larger. This is an issue mainly in 64-bit platforms. You can
3415 see whether using C<!> makes any difference by
3417 print length(pack("s")), " ", length(pack("s!")), "\n";
3418 print length(pack("l")), " ", length(pack("l!")), "\n";
3420 C<i!> and C<I!> also work but only because of completeness;
3421 they are identical to C<i> and C<I>.
3423 The actual sizes (in bytes) of native shorts, ints, longs, and long
3424 longs on the platform where Perl was built are also available via
3428 print $Config{shortsize}, "\n";
3429 print $Config{intsize}, "\n";
3430 print $Config{longsize}, "\n";
3431 print $Config{longlongsize}, "\n";
3433 (The C<$Config{longlongsize}> will be undefined if your system does
3434 not support long longs.)
3438 The integer formats C<s>, C<S>, C<i>, C<I>, C<l>, C<L>, C<j>, and C<J>
3439 are inherently non-portable between processors and operating systems
3440 because they obey the native byteorder and endianness. For example a
3441 4-byte integer 0x12345678 (305419896 decimal) would be ordered natively
3442 (arranged in and handled by the CPU registers) into bytes as
3444 0x12 0x34 0x56 0x78 # big-endian
3445 0x78 0x56 0x34 0x12 # little-endian
3447 Basically, the Intel and VAX CPUs are little-endian, while everybody
3448 else, for example Motorola m68k/88k, PPC, Sparc, HP PA, Power, and
3449 Cray are big-endian. Alpha and MIPS can be either: Digital/Compaq
3450 used/uses them in little-endian mode; SGI/Cray uses them in big-endian
3453 The names `big-endian' and `little-endian' are comic references to
3454 the classic "Gulliver's Travels" (via the paper "On Holy Wars and a
3455 Plea for Peace" by Danny Cohen, USC/ISI IEN 137, April 1, 1980) and
3456 the egg-eating habits of the Lilliputians.
3458 Some systems may have even weirder byte orders such as
3463 You can see your system's preference with
3465 print join(" ", map { sprintf "%#02x", $_ }
3466 unpack("C*",pack("L",0x12345678))), "\n";
3468 The byteorder on the platform where Perl was built is also available
3472 print $Config{byteorder}, "\n";
3474 Byteorders C<'1234'> and C<'12345678'> are little-endian, C<'4321'>
3475 and C<'87654321'> are big-endian.
3477 If you want portable packed integers use the formats C<n>, C<N>,
3478 C<v>, and C<V>, their byte endianness and size are known.
3479 See also L<perlport>.
3483 Real numbers (floats and doubles) are in the native machine format only;
3484 due to the multiplicity of floating formats around, and the lack of a
3485 standard "network" representation, no facility for interchange has been
3486 made. This means that packed floating point data written on one machine
3487 may not be readable on another - even if both use IEEE floating point
3488 arithmetic (as the endian-ness of the memory representation is not part
3489 of the IEEE spec). See also L<perlport>.
3491 Note that Perl uses doubles internally for all numeric calculation, and
3492 converting from double into float and thence back to double again will
3493 lose precision (i.e., C<unpack("f", pack("f", $foo)>) will not in general
3498 If the pattern begins with a C<U>, the resulting string will be treated
3499 as Unicode-encoded. You can force UTF8 encoding on in a string with an
3500 initial C<U0>, and the bytes that follow will be interpreted as Unicode
3501 characters. If you don't want this to happen, you can begin your pattern
3502 with C<C0> (or anything else) to force Perl not to UTF8 encode your
3503 string, and then follow this with a C<U*> somewhere in your pattern.
3507 You must yourself do any alignment or padding by inserting for example
3508 enough C<'x'>es while packing. There is no way to pack() and unpack()
3509 could know where the bytes are going to or coming from. Therefore
3510 C<pack> (and C<unpack>) handle their output and input as flat
3515 A ()-group is a sub-TEMPLATE enclosed in parentheses. A group may
3516 take a repeat count, both as postfix, and for unpack() also via the C</>
3517 template character. Within each repetition of a group, positioning with
3518 C<@> starts again at 0. Therefore, the result of
3520 pack( '@1A((@2A)@3A)', 'a', 'b', 'c' )
3522 is the string "\0a\0\0bc".
3527 C<x> and C<X> accept C<!> modifier. In this case they act as
3528 alignment commands: they jump forward/back to the closest position
3529 aligned at a multiple of C<count> bytes. For example, to pack() or
3530 unpack() C's C<struct {char c; double d; char cc[2]}> one may need to
3531 use the template C<C x![d] d C[2]>; this assumes that doubles must be
3532 aligned on the double's size.
3534 For alignment commands C<count> of 0 is equivalent to C<count> of 1;
3535 both result in no-ops.
3539 A comment in a TEMPLATE starts with C<#> and goes to the end of line.
3540 White space may be used to separate pack codes from each other, but
3541 a C<!> modifier and a repeat count must follow immediately.
3545 If TEMPLATE requires more arguments to pack() than actually given, pack()
3546 assumes additional C<""> arguments. If TEMPLATE requires less arguments
3547 to pack() than actually given, extra arguments are ignored.
3553 $foo = pack("CCCC",65,66,67,68);
3555 $foo = pack("C4",65,66,67,68);
3557 $foo = pack("U4",0x24b6,0x24b7,0x24b8,0x24b9);
3558 # same thing with Unicode circled letters
3560 $foo = pack("ccxxcc",65,66,67,68);
3563 # note: the above examples featuring "C" and "c" are true
3564 # only on ASCII and ASCII-derived systems such as ISO Latin 1
3565 # and UTF-8. In EBCDIC the first example would be
3566 # $foo = pack("CCCC",193,194,195,196);
3568 $foo = pack("s2",1,2);
3569 # "\1\0\2\0" on little-endian
3570 # "\0\1\0\2" on big-endian
3572 $foo = pack("a4","abcd","x","y","z");
3575 $foo = pack("aaaa","abcd","x","y","z");
3578 $foo = pack("a14","abcdefg");
3579 # "abcdefg\0\0\0\0\0\0\0"
3581 $foo = pack("i9pl", gmtime);
3582 # a real struct tm (on my system anyway)
3584 $utmp_template = "Z8 Z8 Z16 L";
3585 $utmp = pack($utmp_template, @utmp1);
3586 # a struct utmp (BSDish)
3588 @utmp2 = unpack($utmp_template, $utmp);
3589 # "@utmp1" eq "@utmp2"
3592 unpack("N", pack("B32", substr("0" x 32 . shift, -32)));
3595 $foo = pack('sx2l', 12, 34);
3596 # short 12, two zero bytes padding, long 34
3597 $bar = pack('s@4l', 12, 34);
3598 # short 12, zero fill to position 4, long 34
3601 The same template may generally also be used in unpack().
3603 =item package NAMESPACE
3607 Declares the compilation unit as being in the given namespace. The scope
3608 of the package declaration is from the declaration itself through the end
3609 of the enclosing block, file, or eval (the same as the C<my> operator).
3610 All further unqualified dynamic identifiers will be in this namespace.
3611 A package statement affects only dynamic variables--including those
3612 you've used C<local> on--but I<not> lexical variables, which are created
3613 with C<my>. Typically it would be the first declaration in a file to
3614 be included by the C<require> or C<use> operator. You can switch into a
3615 package in more than one place; it merely influences which symbol table
3616 is used by the compiler for the rest of that block. You can refer to
3617 variables and filehandles in other packages by prefixing the identifier
3618 with the package name and a double colon: C<$Package::Variable>.
3619 If the package name is null, the C<main> package as assumed. That is,
3620 C<$::sail> is equivalent to C<$main::sail> (as well as to C<$main'sail>,
3621 still seen in older code).
3623 If NAMESPACE is omitted, then there is no current package, and all
3624 identifiers must be fully qualified or lexicals. However, you are
3625 strongly advised not to make use of this feature. Its use can cause
3626 unexpected behaviour, even crashing some versions of Perl. It is
3627 deprecated, and will be removed from a future release.
3629 See L<perlmod/"Packages"> for more information about packages, modules,
3630 and classes. See L<perlsub> for other scoping issues.
3632 =item pipe READHANDLE,WRITEHANDLE
3634 Opens a pair of connected pipes like the corresponding system call.
3635 Note that if you set up a loop of piped processes, deadlock can occur
3636 unless you are very careful. In addition, note that Perl's pipes use
3637 IO buffering, so you may need to set C<$|> to flush your WRITEHANDLE
3638 after each command, depending on the application.
3640 See L<IPC::Open2>, L<IPC::Open3>, and L<perlipc/"Bidirectional Communication">
3641 for examples of such things.
3643 On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will be set
3644 for the newly opened file descriptors as determined by the value of $^F.
3651 Pops and returns the last value of the array, shortening the array by
3652 one element. Has an effect similar to
3656 If there are no elements in the array, returns the undefined value
3657 (although this may happen at other times as well). If ARRAY is
3658 omitted, pops the C<@ARGV> array in the main program, and the C<@_>
3659 array in subroutines, just like C<shift>.
3665 Returns the offset of where the last C<m//g> search left off for the variable
3666 in question (C<$_> is used when the variable is not specified). May be
3667 modified to change that offset. Such modification will also influence
3668 the C<\G> zero-width assertion in regular expressions. See L<perlre> and
3671 =item print FILEHANDLE LIST
3677 Prints a string or a list of strings. Returns true if successful.
3678 FILEHANDLE may be a scalar variable name, in which case the variable
3679 contains the name of or a reference to the filehandle, thus introducing
3680 one level of indirection. (NOTE: If FILEHANDLE is a variable and
3681 the next token is a term, it may be misinterpreted as an operator
3682 unless you interpose a C<+> or put parentheses around the arguments.)
3683 If FILEHANDLE is omitted, prints by default to standard output (or
3684 to the last selected output channel--see L</select>). If LIST is
3685 also omitted, prints C<$_> to the currently selected output channel.
3686 To set the default output channel to something other than STDOUT
3687 use the select operation. The current value of C<$,> (if any) is
3688 printed between each LIST item. The current value of C<$\> (if
3689 any) is printed after the entire LIST has been printed. Because
3690 print takes a LIST, anything in the LIST is evaluated in list
3691 context, and any subroutine that you call will have one or more of
3692 its expressions evaluated in list context. Also be careful not to
3693 follow the print keyword with a left parenthesis unless you want
3694 the corresponding right parenthesis to terminate the arguments to
3695 the print--interpose a C<+> or put parentheses around all the
3698 Note that if you're storing FILEHANDLES in an array or other expression,
3699 you will have to use a block returning its value instead:
3701 print { $files[$i] } "stuff\n";
3702 print { $OK ? STDOUT : STDERR } "stuff\n";
3704 =item printf FILEHANDLE FORMAT, LIST
3706 =item printf FORMAT, LIST
3708 Equivalent to C<print FILEHANDLE sprintf(FORMAT, LIST)>, except that C<$\>
3709 (the output record separator) is not appended. The first argument
3710 of the list will be interpreted as the C<printf> format. See C<sprintf>
3711 for an explanation of the format argument. If C<use locale> is in effect,
3712 the character used for the decimal point in formatted real numbers is
3713 affected by the LC_NUMERIC locale. See L<perllocale>.
3715 Don't fall into the trap of using a C<printf> when a simple
3716 C<print> would do. The C<print> is more efficient and less
3719 =item prototype FUNCTION
3721 Returns the prototype of a function as a string (or C<undef> if the
3722 function has no prototype). FUNCTION is a reference to, or the name of,
3723 the function whose prototype you want to retrieve.
3725 If FUNCTION is a string starting with C<CORE::>, the rest is taken as a
3726 name for Perl builtin. If the builtin is not I<overridable> (such as
3727 C<qw//>) or its arguments cannot be expressed by a prototype (such as
3728 C<system>) returns C<undef> because the builtin does not really behave
3729 like a Perl function. Otherwise, the string describing the equivalent
3730 prototype is returned.
3732 =item push ARRAY,LIST
3734 Treats ARRAY as a stack, and pushes the values of LIST
3735 onto the end of ARRAY. The length of ARRAY increases by the length of
3736 LIST. Has the same effect as
3739 $ARRAY[++$#ARRAY] = $value;
3742 but is more efficient. Returns the new number of elements in the array.
3754 Generalized quotes. See L<perlop/"Regexp Quote-Like Operators">.
3756 =item quotemeta EXPR
3760 Returns the value of EXPR with all non-"word"
3761 characters backslashed. (That is, all characters not matching
3762 C</[A-Za-z_0-9]/> will be preceded by a backslash in the
3763 returned string, regardless of any locale settings.)
3764 This is the internal function implementing
3765 the C<\Q> escape in double-quoted strings.
3767 If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
3773 Returns a random fractional number greater than or equal to C<0> and less
3774 than the value of EXPR. (EXPR should be positive.) If EXPR is
3775 omitted, the value C<1> is used. Currently EXPR with the value C<0> is
3776 also special-cased as C<1> - this has not been documented before perl 5.8.0
3777 and is subject to change in future versions of perl. Automatically calls
3778 C<srand> unless C<srand> has already been called. See also C<srand>.
3780 Apply C<int()> to the value returned by C<rand()> if you want random
3781 integers instead of random fractional numbers. For example,
3785 returns a random integer between C<0> and C<9>, inclusive.
3787 (Note: If your rand function consistently returns numbers that are too
3788 large or too small, then your version of Perl was probably compiled
3789 with the wrong number of RANDBITS.)
3791 =item read FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH,OFFSET
3793 =item read FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH
3795 Attempts to read LENGTH I<characters> of data into variable SCALAR
3796 from the specified FILEHANDLE. Returns the number of characters
3797 actually read, C<0> at end of file, or undef if there was an error (in
3798 the latter case C<$!> is also set). SCALAR will be grown or shrunk to
3799 the length actually read. If SCALAR needs growing, the new bytes will
3800 be zero bytes. An OFFSET may be specified to place the read data into
3801 some other place in SCALAR than the beginning. The call is actually
3802 implemented in terms of either Perl's or system's fread() call. To
3803 get a true read(2) system call, see C<sysread>.
3805 Note the I<characters>: depending on the status of the filehandle,
3806 either (8-bit) bytes or characters are read. By default all
3807 filehandles operate on bytes, but for example if the filehandle has
3808 been opened with the C<:utf8> I/O layer (see L</open>, and the C<open>
3809 pragma, L<open>), the I/O will operate on characters, not bytes.
3811 =item readdir DIRHANDLE
3813 Returns the next directory entry for a directory opened by C<opendir>.
3814 If used in list context, returns all the rest of the entries in the
3815 directory. If there are no more entries, returns an undefined value in
3816 scalar context or a null list in list context.
3818 If you're planning to filetest the return values out of a C<readdir>, you'd
3819 better prepend the directory in question. Otherwise, because we didn't
3820 C<chdir> there, it would have been testing the wrong file.
3822 opendir(DIR, $some_dir) || die "can't opendir $some_dir: $!";
3823 @dots = grep { /^\./ && -f "$some_dir/$_" } readdir(DIR);
3828 Reads from the filehandle whose typeglob is contained in EXPR. In scalar
3829 context, each call reads and returns the next line, until end-of-file is
3830 reached, whereupon the subsequent call returns undef. In list context,
3831 reads until end-of-file is reached and returns a list of lines. Note that
3832 the notion of "line" used here is however you may have defined it
3833 with C<$/> or C<$INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR>). See L<perlvar/"$/">.
3835 When C<$/> is set to C<undef>, when readline() is in scalar
3836 context (i.e. file slurp mode), and when an empty file is read, it
3837 returns C<''> the first time, followed by C<undef> subsequently.
3839 This is the internal function implementing the C<< <EXPR> >>
3840 operator, but you can use it directly. The C<< <EXPR> >>
3841 operator is discussed in more detail in L<perlop/"I/O Operators">.
3844 $line = readline(*STDIN); # same thing
3846 If readline encounters an operating system error, C<$!> will be set with the
3847 corresponding error message. It can be helpful to check C<$!> when you are
3848 reading from filehandles you don't trust, such as a tty or a socket. The
3849 following example uses the operator form of C<readline>, and takes the necessary
3850 steps to ensure that C<readline> was successful.
3854 unless (defined( $line = <> )) {
3865 Returns the value of a symbolic link, if symbolic links are
3866 implemented. If not, gives a fatal error. If there is some system
3867 error, returns the undefined value and sets C<$!> (errno). If EXPR is
3868 omitted, uses C<$_>.
3872 EXPR is executed as a system command.
3873 The collected standard output of the command is returned.
3874 In scalar context, it comes back as a single (potentially
3875 multi-line) string. In list context, returns a list of lines
3876 (however you've defined lines with C<$/> or C<$INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR>).
3877 This is the internal function implementing the C<qx/EXPR/>
3878 operator, but you can use it directly. The C<qx/EXPR/>
3879 operator is discussed in more detail in L<perlop/"I/O Operators">.
3881 =item recv SOCKET,SCALAR,LENGTH,FLAGS
3883 Receives a message on a socket. Attempts to receive LENGTH characters
3884 of data into variable SCALAR from the specified SOCKET filehandle.
3885 SCALAR will be grown or shrunk to the length actually read. Takes the
3886 same flags as the system call of the same name. Returns the address
3887 of the sender if SOCKET's protocol supports this; returns an empty
3888 string otherwise. If there's an error, returns the undefined value.
3889 This call is actually implemented in terms of recvfrom(2) system call.
3890 See L<perlipc/"UDP: Message Passing"> for examples.
3892 Note the I<characters>: depending on the status of the socket, either
3893 (8-bit) bytes or characters are received. By default all sockets
3894 operate on bytes, but for example if the socket has been changed using
3895 binmode() to operate with the C<:utf8> I/O layer (see the C<open>
3896 pragma, L<open>), the I/O will operate on characters, not bytes.
3902 The C<redo> command restarts the loop block without evaluating the
3903 conditional again. The C<continue> block, if any, is not executed. If
3904 the LABEL is omitted, the command refers to the innermost enclosing
3905 loop. This command is normally used by programs that want to lie to
3906 themselves about what was just input:
3908 # a simpleminded Pascal comment stripper
3909 # (warning: assumes no { or } in strings)
3910 LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
3911 while (s|({.*}.*){.*}|$1 |) {}
3916 if (/}/) { # end of comment?
3925 C<redo> cannot be used to retry a block which returns a value such as
3926 C<eval {}>, C<sub {}> or C<do {}>, and should not be used to exit
3927 a grep() or map() operation.
3929 Note that a block by itself is semantically identical to a loop
3930 that executes once. Thus C<redo> inside such a block will effectively
3931 turn it into a looping construct.
3933 See also L</continue> for an illustration of how C<last>, C<next>, and
3940 Returns a true value if EXPR is a reference, false otherwise. If EXPR
3941 is not specified, C<$_> will be used. The value returned depends on the
3942 type of thing the reference is a reference to.
3943 Builtin types include:
3953 If the referenced object has been blessed into a package, then that package
3954 name is returned instead. You can think of C<ref> as a C<typeof> operator.
3956 if (ref($r) eq "HASH") {
3957 print "r is a reference to a hash.\n";
3960 print "r is not a reference at all.\n";
3962 if (UNIVERSAL::isa($r, "HASH")) { # for subclassing
3963 print "r is a reference to something that isa hash.\n";
3966 See also L<perlref>.
3968 =item rename OLDNAME,NEWNAME
3970 Changes the name of a file; an existing file NEWNAME will be
3971 clobbered. Returns true for success, false otherwise.
3973 Behavior of this function varies wildly depending on your system
3974 implementation. For example, it will usually not work across file system
3975 boundaries, even though the system I<mv> command sometimes compensates
3976 for this. Other restrictions include whether it works on directories,
3977 open files, or pre-existing files. Check L<perlport> and either the
3978 rename(2) manpage or equivalent system documentation for details.
3980 =item require VERSION
3986 Demands a version of Perl specified by VERSION, or demands some semantics
3987 specified by EXPR or by C<$_> if EXPR is not supplied.
3989 VERSION may be either a numeric argument such as 5.006, which will be
3990 compared to C<$]>, or a literal of the form v5.6.1, which will be compared
3991 to C<$^V> (aka $PERL_VERSION). A fatal error is produced at run time if
3992 VERSION is greater than the version of the current Perl interpreter.
3993 Compare with L</use>, which can do a similar check at compile time.
3995 Specifying VERSION as a literal of the form v5.6.1 should generally be
3996 avoided, because it leads to misleading error messages under earlier
3997 versions of Perl which do not support this syntax. The equivalent numeric
3998 version should be used instead.
4000 require v5.6.1; # run time version check
4001 require 5.6.1; # ditto
4002 require 5.006_001; # ditto; preferred for backwards compatibility
4004 Otherwise, demands that a library file be included if it hasn't already
4005 been included. The file is included via the do-FILE mechanism, which is
4006 essentially just a variety of C<eval>. Has semantics similar to the following
4011 return 1 if $INC{$filename};
4012 my($realfilename,$result);
4014 foreach $prefix (@INC) {
4015 $realfilename = "$prefix/$filename";
4016 if (-f $realfilename) {
4017 $INC{$filename} = $realfilename;
4018 $result = do $realfilename;
4022 die "Can't find $filename in \@INC";
4024 delete $INC{$filename} if $@ || !$result;
4026 die "$filename did not return true value" unless $result;
4030 Note that the file will not be included twice under the same specified
4031 name. The file must return true as the last statement to indicate
4032 successful execution of any initialization code, so it's customary to
4033 end such a file with C<1;> unless you're sure it'll return true
4034 otherwise. But it's better just to put the C<1;>, in case you add more
4037 If EXPR is a bareword, the require assumes a "F<.pm>" extension and
4038 replaces "F<::>" with "F</>" in the filename for you,
4039 to make it easy to load standard modules. This form of loading of
4040 modules does not risk altering your namespace.
4042 In other words, if you try this:
4044 require Foo::Bar; # a splendid bareword
4046 The require function will actually look for the "F<Foo/Bar.pm>" file in the
4047 directories specified in the C<@INC> array.
4049 But if you try this:
4051 $class = 'Foo::Bar';
4052 require $class; # $class is not a bareword
4054 require "Foo::Bar"; # not a bareword because of the ""
4056 The require function will look for the "F<Foo::Bar>" file in the @INC array and
4057 will complain about not finding "F<Foo::Bar>" there. In this case you can do:
4059 eval "require $class";
4061 Now that you understand how C<require> looks for files in the case of
4062 a bareword argument, there is a little extra functionality going on
4063 behind the scenes. Before C<require> looks for a "F<.pm>" extension,
4064 it will first look for a filename with a "F<.pmc>" extension. A file
4065 with this extension is assumed to be Perl bytecode generated by
4066 L<B::Bytecode|B::Bytecode>. If this file is found, and it's modification
4067 time is newer than a coinciding "F<.pm>" non-compiled file, it will be
4068 loaded in place of that non-compiled file ending in a "F<.pm>" extension.
4070 You can also insert hooks into the import facility, by putting directly
4071 Perl code into the @INC array. There are three forms of hooks: subroutine
4072 references, array references and blessed objects.
4074 Subroutine references are the simplest case. When the inclusion system
4075 walks through @INC and encounters a subroutine, this subroutine gets
4076 called with two parameters, the first being a reference to itself, and the
4077 second the name of the file to be included (e.g. "F<Foo/Bar.pm>"). The
4078 subroutine should return C<undef> or a filehandle, from which the file to
4079 include will be read. If C<undef> is returned, C<require> will look at
4080 the remaining elements of @INC.
4082 If the hook is an array reference, its first element must be a subroutine
4083 reference. This subroutine is called as above, but the first parameter is
4084 the array reference. This enables to pass indirectly some arguments to
4087 In other words, you can write:
4089 push @INC, \&my_sub;
4091 my ($coderef, $filename) = @_; # $coderef is \&my_sub
4097 push @INC, [ \&my_sub, $x, $y, ... ];
4099 my ($arrayref, $filename) = @_;
4100 # Retrieve $x, $y, ...
4101 my @parameters = @$arrayref[1..$#$arrayref];
4105 If the hook is an object, it must provide an INC method, that will be
4106 called as above, the first parameter being the object itself. (Note that
4107 you must fully qualify the sub's name, as it is always forced into package
4108 C<main>.) Here is a typical code layout:
4114 my ($self, $filename) = @_;
4118 # In the main program
4119 push @INC, new Foo(...);
4121 Note that these hooks are also permitted to set the %INC entry
4122 corresponding to the files they have loaded. See L<perlvar/%INC>.
4124 For a yet-more-powerful import facility, see L</use> and L<perlmod>.
4130 Generally used in a C<continue> block at the end of a loop to clear
4131 variables and reset C<??> searches so that they work again. The
4132 expression is interpreted as a list of single characters (hyphens
4133 allowed for ranges). All variables and arrays beginning with one of
4134 those letters are reset to their pristine state. If the expression is
4135 omitted, one-match searches (C<?pattern?>) are reset to match again. Resets
4136 only variables or searches in the current package. Always returns
4139 reset 'X'; # reset all X variables
4140 reset 'a-z'; # reset lower case variables
4141 reset; # just reset ?one-time? searches
4143 Resetting C<"A-Z"> is not recommended because you'll wipe out your
4144 C<@ARGV> and C<@INC> arrays and your C<%ENV> hash. Resets only package
4145 variables--lexical variables are unaffected, but they clean themselves
4146 up on scope exit anyway, so you'll probably want to use them instead.
4153 Returns from a subroutine, C<eval>, or C<do FILE> with the value
4154 given in EXPR. Evaluation of EXPR may be in list, scalar, or void
4155 context, depending on how the return value will be used, and the context
4156 may vary from one execution to the next (see C<wantarray>). If no EXPR
4157 is given, returns an empty list in list context, the undefined value in
4158 scalar context, and (of course) nothing at all in a void context.
4160 (Note that in the absence of an explicit C<return>, a subroutine, eval,
4161 or do FILE will automatically return the value of the last expression
4166 In list context, returns a list value consisting of the elements
4167 of LIST in the opposite order. In scalar context, concatenates the
4168 elements of LIST and returns a string value with all characters
4169 in the opposite order.
4171 print reverse <>; # line tac, last line first
4173 undef $/; # for efficiency of <>
4174 print scalar reverse <>; # character tac, last line tsrif
4176 This operator is also handy for inverting a hash, although there are some
4177 caveats. If a value is duplicated in the original hash, only one of those
4178 can be represented as a key in the inverted hash. Also, this has to
4179 unwind one hash and build a whole new one, which may take some time
4180 on a large hash, such as from a DBM file.
4182 %by_name = reverse %by_address; # Invert the hash
4184 =item rewinddir DIRHANDLE
4186 Sets the current position to the beginning of the directory for the
4187 C<readdir> routine on DIRHANDLE.
4189 =item rindex STR,SUBSTR,POSITION
4191 =item rindex STR,SUBSTR
4193 Works just like index() except that it returns the position of the LAST
4194 occurrence of SUBSTR in STR. If POSITION is specified, returns the
4195 last occurrence at or before that position.
4197 =item rmdir FILENAME
4201 Deletes the directory specified by FILENAME if that directory is empty. If it
4202 succeeds it returns true, otherwise it returns false and sets C<$!> (errno). If
4203 FILENAME is omitted, uses C<$_>.
4207 The substitution operator. See L<perlop>.
4211 Forces EXPR to be interpreted in scalar context and returns the value
4214 @counts = ( scalar @a, scalar @b, scalar @c );
4216 There is no equivalent operator to force an expression to
4217 be interpolated in list context because in practice, this is never
4218 needed. If you really wanted to do so, however, you could use
4219 the construction C<@{[ (some expression) ]}>, but usually a simple
4220 C<(some expression)> suffices.
4222 Because C<scalar> is unary operator, if you accidentally use for EXPR a
4223 parenthesized list, this behaves as a scalar comma expression, evaluating
4224 all but the last element in void context and returning the final element
4225 evaluated in scalar context. This is seldom what you want.
4227 The following single statement:
4229 print uc(scalar(&foo,$bar)),$baz;
4231 is the moral equivalent of these two:
4234 print(uc($bar),$baz);
4236 See L<perlop> for more details on unary operators and the comma operator.
4238 =item seek FILEHANDLE,POSITION,WHENCE
4240 Sets FILEHANDLE's position, just like the C<fseek> call of C<stdio>.
4241 FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name of the
4242 filehandle. The values for WHENCE are C<0> to set the new position
4243 I<in bytes> to POSITION, C<1> to set it to the current position plus
4244 POSITION, and C<2> to set it to EOF plus POSITION (typically
4245 negative). For WHENCE you may use the constants C<SEEK_SET>,
4246 C<SEEK_CUR>, and C<SEEK_END> (start of the file, current position, end
4247 of the file) from the Fcntl module. Returns C<1> upon success, C<0>
4250 Note the I<in bytes>: even if the filehandle has been set to
4251 operate on characters (for example by using the C<:utf8> open
4252 layer), tell() will return byte offsets, not character offsets
4253 (because implementing that would render seek() and tell() rather slow).
4255 If you want to position file for C<sysread> or C<syswrite>, don't use
4256 C<seek>--buffering makes its effect on the file's system position
4257 unpredictable and non-portable. Use C<sysseek> instead.
4259 Due to the rules and rigors of ANSI C, on some systems you have to do a
4260 seek whenever you switch between reading and writing. Amongst other
4261 things, this may have the effect of calling stdio's clearerr(3).
4262 A WHENCE of C<1> (C<SEEK_CUR>) is useful for not moving the file position:
4266 This is also useful for applications emulating C<tail -f>. Once you hit
4267 EOF on your read, and then sleep for a while, you might have to stick in a
4268 seek() to reset things. The C<seek> doesn't change the current position,
4269 but it I<does> clear the end-of-file condition on the handle, so that the
4270 next C<< <FILE> >> makes Perl try again to read something. We hope.
4272 If that doesn't work (some IO implementations are particularly
4273 cantankerous), then you may need something more like this:
4276 for ($curpos = tell(FILE); $_ = <FILE>;
4277 $curpos = tell(FILE)) {
4278 # search for some stuff and put it into files
4280 sleep($for_a_while);
4281 seek(FILE, $curpos, 0);
4284 =item seekdir DIRHANDLE,POS
4286 Sets the current position for the C<readdir> routine on DIRHANDLE. POS
4287 must be a value returned by C<telldir>. Has the same caveats about
4288 possible directory compaction as the corresponding system library
4291 =item select FILEHANDLE
4295 Returns the currently selected filehandle. Sets the current default
4296 filehandle for output, if FILEHANDLE is supplied. This has two
4297 effects: first, a C<write> or a C<print> without a filehandle will
4298 default to this FILEHANDLE. Second, references to variables related to
4299 output will refer to this output channel. For example, if you have to
4300 set the top of form format for more than one output channel, you might
4308 FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name of the
4309 actual filehandle. Thus:
4311 $oldfh = select(STDERR); $| = 1; select($oldfh);
4313 Some programmers may prefer to think of filehandles as objects with
4314 methods, preferring to write the last example as:
4317 STDERR->autoflush(1);
4319 =item select RBITS,WBITS,EBITS,TIMEOUT
4321 This calls the select(2) system call with the bit masks specified, which
4322 can be constructed using C<fileno> and C<vec>, along these lines:
4324 $rin = $win = $ein = '';
4325 vec($rin,fileno(STDIN),1) = 1;
4326 vec($win,fileno(STDOUT),1) = 1;
4329 If you want to select on many filehandles you might wish to write a
4333 my(@fhlist) = split(' ',$_[0]);
4336 vec($bits,fileno($_),1) = 1;
4340 $rin = fhbits('STDIN TTY SOCK');
4344 ($nfound,$timeleft) =
4345 select($rout=$rin, $wout=$win, $eout=$ein, $timeout);
4347 or to block until something becomes ready just do this
4349 $nfound = select($rout=$rin, $wout=$win, $eout=$ein, undef);
4351 Most systems do not bother to return anything useful in $timeleft, so
4352 calling select() in scalar context just returns $nfound.
4354 Any of the bit masks can also be undef. The timeout, if specified, is
4355 in seconds, which may be fractional. Note: not all implementations are
4356 capable of returning the $timeleft. If not, they always return
4357 $timeleft equal to the supplied $timeout.
4359 You can effect a sleep of 250 milliseconds this way:
4361 select(undef, undef, undef, 0.25);
4363 Note that whether C<select> gets restarted after signals (say, SIGALRM)
4364 is implementation-dependent.
4366 B<WARNING>: One should not attempt to mix buffered I/O (like C<read>
4367 or <FH>) with C<select>, except as permitted by POSIX, and even
4368 then only on POSIX systems. You have to use C<sysread> instead.
4370 =item semctl ID,SEMNUM,CMD,ARG
4372 Calls the System V IPC function C<semctl>. You'll probably have to say
4376 first to get the correct constant definitions. If CMD is IPC_STAT or
4377 GETALL, then ARG must be a variable which will hold the returned
4378 semid_ds structure or semaphore value array. Returns like C<ioctl>:
4379 the undefined value for error, "C<0 but true>" for zero, or the actual
4380 return value otherwise. The ARG must consist of a vector of native
4381 short integers, which may be created with C<pack("s!",(0)x$nsem)>.
4382 See also L<perlipc/"SysV IPC">, C<IPC::SysV>, C<IPC::Semaphore>
4385 =item semget KEY,NSEMS,FLAGS
4387 Calls the System V IPC function semget. Returns the semaphore id, or
4388 the undefined value if there is an error. See also
4389 L<perlipc/"SysV IPC">, C<IPC::SysV>, C<IPC::SysV::Semaphore>
4392 =item semop KEY,OPSTRING
4394 Calls the System V IPC function semop to perform semaphore operations
4395 such as signalling and waiting. OPSTRING must be a packed array of
4396 semop structures. Each semop structure can be generated with
4397 C<pack("s!3", $semnum, $semop, $semflag)>. The number of semaphore
4398 operations is implied by the length of OPSTRING. Returns true if
4399 successful, or false if there is an error. As an example, the
4400 following code waits on semaphore $semnum of semaphore id $semid:
4402 $semop = pack("s!3", $semnum, -1, 0);
4403 die "Semaphore trouble: $!\n" unless semop($semid, $semop);
4405 To signal the semaphore, replace C<-1> with C<1>. See also
4406 L<perlipc/"SysV IPC">, C<IPC::SysV>, and C<IPC::SysV::Semaphore>
4409 =item send SOCKET,MSG,FLAGS,TO
4411 =item send SOCKET,MSG,FLAGS
4413 Sends a message on a socket. Attempts to send the scalar MSG to the
4414 SOCKET filehandle. Takes the same flags as the system call of the
4415 same name. On unconnected sockets you must specify a destination to
4416 send TO, in which case it does a C C<sendto>. Returns the number of
4417 characters sent, or the undefined value if there is an error. The C
4418 system call sendmsg(2) is currently unimplemented. See
4419 L<perlipc/"UDP: Message Passing"> for examples.
4421 Note the I<characters>: depending on the status of the socket, either
4422 (8-bit) bytes or characters are sent. By default all sockets operate
4423 on bytes, but for example if the socket has been changed using
4424 binmode() to operate with the C<:utf8> I/O layer (see L</open>, or
4425 the C<open> pragma, L<open>), the I/O will operate on characters, not
4428 =item setpgrp PID,PGRP
4430 Sets the current process group for the specified PID, C<0> for the current
4431 process. Will produce a fatal error if used on a machine that doesn't
4432 implement POSIX setpgid(2) or BSD setpgrp(2). If the arguments are omitted,
4433 it defaults to C<0,0>. Note that the BSD 4.2 version of C<setpgrp> does not
4434 accept any arguments, so only C<setpgrp(0,0)> is portable. See also
4437 =item setpriority WHICH,WHO,PRIORITY
4439 Sets the current priority for a process, a process group, or a user.
4440 (See setpriority(2).) Will produce a fatal error if used on a machine
4441 that doesn't implement setpriority(2).
4443 =item setsockopt SOCKET,LEVEL,OPTNAME,OPTVAL
4445 Sets the socket option requested. Returns undefined if there is an
4446 error. OPTVAL may be specified as C<undef> if you don't want to pass an
4453 Shifts the first value of the array off and returns it, shortening the
4454 array by 1 and moving everything down. If there are no elements in the
4455 array, returns the undefined value. If ARRAY is omitted, shifts the
4456 C<@_> array within the lexical scope of subroutines and formats, and the
4457 C<@ARGV> array at file scopes or within the lexical scopes established by
4458 the C<eval ''>, C<BEGIN {}>, C<INIT {}>, C<CHECK {}>, and C<END {}>
4461 See also C<unshift>, C<push>, and C<pop>. C<shift> and C<unshift> do the
4462 same thing to the left end of an array that C<pop> and C<push> do to the
4465 =item shmctl ID,CMD,ARG
4467 Calls the System V IPC function shmctl. You'll probably have to say
4471 first to get the correct constant definitions. If CMD is C<IPC_STAT>,
4472 then ARG must be a variable which will hold the returned C<shmid_ds>
4473 structure. Returns like ioctl: the undefined value for error, "C<0> but
4474 true" for zero, or the actual return value otherwise.
4475 See also L<perlipc/"SysV IPC"> and C<IPC::SysV> documentation.
4477 =item shmget KEY,SIZE,FLAGS
4479 Calls the System V IPC function shmget. Returns the shared memory
4480 segment id, or the undefined value if there is an error.
4481 See also L<perlipc/"SysV IPC"> and C<IPC::SysV> documentation.
4483 =item shmread ID,VAR,POS,SIZE
4485 =item shmwrite ID,STRING,POS,SIZE
4487 Reads or writes the System V shared memory segment ID starting at
4488 position POS for size SIZE by attaching to it, copying in/out, and
4489 detaching from it. When reading, VAR must be a variable that will
4490 hold the data read. When writing, if STRING is too long, only SIZE
4491 bytes are used; if STRING is too short, nulls are written to fill out
4492 SIZE bytes. Return true if successful, or false if there is an error.
4493 shmread() taints the variable. See also L<perlipc/"SysV IPC">,
4494 C<IPC::SysV> documentation, and the C<IPC::Shareable> module from CPAN.
4496 =item shutdown SOCKET,HOW
4498 Shuts down a socket connection in the manner indicated by HOW, which
4499 has the same interpretation as in the system call of the same name.
4501 shutdown(SOCKET, 0); # I/we have stopped reading data
4502 shutdown(SOCKET, 1); # I/we have stopped writing data
4503 shutdown(SOCKET, 2); # I/we have stopped using this socket
4505 This is useful with sockets when you want to tell the other
4506 side you're done writing but not done reading, or vice versa.
4507 It's also a more insistent form of close because it also
4508 disables the file descriptor in any forked copies in other
4515 Returns the sine of EXPR (expressed in radians). If EXPR is omitted,
4516 returns sine of C<$_>.
4518 For the inverse sine operation, you may use the C<Math::Trig::asin>
4519 function, or use this relation:
4521 sub asin { atan2($_[0], sqrt(1 - $_[0] * $_[0])) }
4527 Causes the script to sleep for EXPR seconds, or forever if no EXPR.
4528 May be interrupted if the process receives a signal such as C<SIGALRM>.
4529 Returns the number of seconds actually slept. You probably cannot
4530 mix C<alarm> and C<sleep> calls, because C<sleep> is often implemented
4533 On some older systems, it may sleep up to a full second less than what
4534 you requested, depending on how it counts seconds. Most modern systems
4535 always sleep the full amount. They may appear to sleep longer than that,
4536 however, because your process might not be scheduled right away in a
4537 busy multitasking system.
4539 For delays of finer granularity than one second, you may use Perl's
4540 C<syscall> interface to access setitimer(2) if your system supports
4541 it, or else see L</select> above. The Time::HiRes module (from CPAN,
4542 and starting from Perl 5.8 part of the standard distribution) may also
4545 See also the POSIX module's C<pause> function.
4547 =item socket SOCKET,DOMAIN,TYPE,PROTOCOL
4549 Opens a socket of the specified kind and attaches it to filehandle
4550 SOCKET. DOMAIN, TYPE, and PROTOCOL are specified the same as for
4551 the system call of the same name. You should C<use Socket> first
4552 to get the proper definitions imported. See the examples in
4553 L<perlipc/"Sockets: Client/Server Communication">.
4555 On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will
4556 be set for the newly opened file descriptor, as determined by the
4557 value of $^F. See L<perlvar/$^F>.
4559 =item socketpair SOCKET1,SOCKET2,DOMAIN,TYPE,PROTOCOL
4561 Creates an unnamed pair of sockets in the specified domain, of the
4562 specified type. DOMAIN, TYPE, and PROTOCOL are specified the same as
4563 for the system call of the same name. If unimplemented, yields a fatal
4564 error. Returns true if successful.
4566 On systems that support a close-on-exec flag on files, the flag will
4567 be set for the newly opened file descriptors, as determined by the value
4568 of $^F. See L<perlvar/$^F>.
4570 Some systems defined C<pipe> in terms of C<socketpair>, in which a call
4571 to C<pipe(Rdr, Wtr)> is essentially:
4574 socketpair(Rdr, Wtr, AF_UNIX, SOCK_STREAM, PF_UNSPEC);
4575 shutdown(Rdr, 1); # no more writing for reader
4576 shutdown(Wtr, 0); # no more reading for writer
4578 See L<perlipc> for an example of socketpair use. Perl 5.8 and later will
4579 emulate socketpair using IP sockets to localhost if your system implements
4580 sockets but not socketpair.
4582 =item sort SUBNAME LIST
4584 =item sort BLOCK LIST
4588 In list context, this sorts the LIST and returns the sorted list value.
4589 In scalar context, the behaviour of C<sort()> is undefined.
4591 If SUBNAME or BLOCK is omitted, C<sort>s in standard string comparison
4592 order. If SUBNAME is specified, it gives the name of a subroutine
4593 that returns an integer less than, equal to, or greater than C<0>,
4594 depending on how the elements of the list are to be ordered. (The C<<
4595 <=> >> and C<cmp> operators are extremely useful in such routines.)
4596 SUBNAME may be a scalar variable name (unsubscripted), in which case
4597 the value provides the name of (or a reference to) the actual
4598 subroutine to use. In place of a SUBNAME, you can provide a BLOCK as
4599 an anonymous, in-line sort subroutine.
4601 If the subroutine's prototype is C<($$)>, the elements to be compared
4602 are passed by reference in C<@_>, as for a normal subroutine. This is
4603 slower than unprototyped subroutines, where the elements to be
4604 compared are passed into the subroutine
4605 as the package global variables $a and $b (see example below). Note that
4606 in the latter case, it is usually counter-productive to declare $a and
4609 In either case, the subroutine may not be recursive. The values to be
4610 compared are always passed by reference, so don't modify them.
4612 You also cannot exit out of the sort block or subroutine using any of the
4613 loop control operators described in L<perlsyn> or with C<goto>.
4615 When C<use locale> is in effect, C<sort LIST> sorts LIST according to the
4616 current collation locale. See L<perllocale>.
4618 Perl 5.6 and earlier used a quicksort algorithm to implement sort.
4619 That algorithm was not stable, and I<could> go quadratic. (A I<stable> sort
4620 preserves the input order of elements that compare equal. Although
4621 quicksort's run time is O(NlogN) when averaged over all arrays of
4622 length N, the time can be O(N**2), I<quadratic> behavior, for some
4623 inputs.) In 5.7, the quicksort implementation was replaced with
4624 a stable mergesort algorithm whose worst case behavior is O(NlogN).
4625 But benchmarks indicated that for some inputs, on some platforms,
4626 the original quicksort was faster. 5.8 has a sort pragma for
4627 limited control of the sort. Its rather blunt control of the
4628 underlying algorithm may not persist into future perls, but the
4629 ability to characterize the input or output in implementation
4630 independent ways quite probably will. See L<sort>.
4635 @articles = sort @files;
4637 # same thing, but with explicit sort routine
4638 @articles = sort {$a cmp $b} @files;
4640 # now case-insensitively
4641 @articles = sort {uc($a) cmp uc($b)} @files;
4643 # same thing in reversed order
4644 @articles = sort {$b cmp $a} @files;
4646 # sort numerically ascending
4647 @articles = sort {$a <=> $b} @files;
4649 # sort numerically descending
4650 @articles = sort {$b <=> $a} @files;
4652 # this sorts the %age hash by value instead of key
4653 # using an in-line function
4654 @eldest = sort { $age{$b} <=> $age{$a} } keys %age;
4656 # sort using explicit subroutine name
4658 $age{$a} <=> $age{$b}; # presuming numeric
4660 @sortedclass = sort byage @class;
4662 sub backwards { $b cmp $a }
4663 @harry = qw(dog cat x Cain Abel);
4664 @george = qw(gone chased yz Punished Axed);
4666 # prints AbelCaincatdogx
4667 print sort backwards @harry;
4668 # prints xdogcatCainAbel
4669 print sort @george, 'to', @harry;
4670 # prints AbelAxedCainPunishedcatchaseddoggonetoxyz
4672 # inefficiently sort by descending numeric compare using
4673 # the first integer after the first = sign, or the
4674 # whole record case-insensitively otherwise
4677 ($b =~ /=(\d+)/)[0] <=> ($a =~ /=(\d+)/)[0]
4682 # same thing, but much more efficiently;
4683 # we'll build auxiliary indices instead
4687 push @nums, /=(\d+)/;
4692 $nums[$b] <=> $nums[$a]
4694 $caps[$a] cmp $caps[$b]
4698 # same thing, but without any temps
4699 @new = map { $_->[0] }
4700 sort { $b->[1] <=> $a->[1]
4703 } map { [$_, /=(\d+)/, uc($_)] } @old;
4705 # using a prototype allows you to use any comparison subroutine
4706 # as a sort subroutine (including other package's subroutines)
4708 sub backwards ($$) { $_[1] cmp $_[0]; } # $a and $b are not set here
4711 @new = sort other::backwards @old;
4713 # guarantee stability, regardless of algorithm
4715 @new = sort { substr($a, 3, 5) cmp substr($b, 3, 5) } @old;
4717 # force use of mergesort (not portable outside Perl 5.8)
4718 use sort '_mergesort'; # note discouraging _
4719 @new = sort { substr($a, 3, 5) cmp substr($b, 3, 5) } @old;
4721 If you're using strict, you I<must not> declare $a
4722 and $b as lexicals. They are package globals. That means
4723 if you're in the C<main> package and type
4725 @articles = sort {$b <=> $a} @files;
4727 then C<$a> and C<$b> are C<$main::a> and C<$main::b> (or C<$::a> and C<$::b>),
4728 but if you're in the C<FooPack> package, it's the same as typing
4730 @articles = sort {$FooPack::b <=> $FooPack::a} @files;
4732 The comparison function is required to behave. If it returns
4733 inconsistent results (sometimes saying C<$x[1]> is less than C<$x[2]> and
4734 sometimes saying the opposite, for example) the results are not
4737 =item splice ARRAY,OFFSET,LENGTH,LIST
4739 =item splice ARRAY,OFFSET,LENGTH
4741 =item splice ARRAY,OFFSET
4745 Removes the elements designated by OFFSET and LENGTH from an array, and
4746 replaces them with the elements of LIST, if any. In list context,
4747 returns the elements removed from the array. In scalar context,
4748 returns the last element removed, or C<undef> if no elements are
4749 removed. The array grows or shrinks as necessary.
4750 If OFFSET is negative then it starts that far from the end of the array.
4751 If LENGTH is omitted, removes everything from OFFSET onward.
4752 If LENGTH is negative, removes the elements from OFFSET onward
4753 except for -LENGTH elements at the end of the array.
4754 If both OFFSET and LENGTH are omitted, removes everything. If OFFSET is
4755 past the end of the array, perl issues a warning, and splices at the
4758 The following equivalences hold (assuming C<< $[ == 0 and $#a >= $i >> )
4760 push(@a,$x,$y) splice(@a,@a,0,$x,$y)
4761 pop(@a) splice(@a,-1)
4762 shift(@a) splice(@a,0,1)
4763 unshift(@a,$x,$y) splice(@a,0,0,$x,$y)
4764 $a[$i] = $y splice(@a,$i,1,$y)
4766 Example, assuming array lengths are passed before arrays:
4768 sub aeq { # compare two list values
4769 my(@a) = splice(@_,0,shift);
4770 my(@b) = splice(@_,0,shift);
4771 return 0 unless @a == @b; # same len?
4773 return 0 if pop(@a) ne pop(@b);
4777 if (&aeq($len,@foo[1..$len],0+@bar,@bar)) { ... }
4779 =item split /PATTERN/,EXPR,LIMIT
4781 =item split /PATTERN/,EXPR
4783 =item split /PATTERN/
4787 Splits a string into a list of strings and returns that list. By default,
4788 empty leading fields are preserved, and empty trailing ones are deleted.
4790 In scalar context, returns the number of fields found and splits into
4791 the C<@_> array. Use of split in scalar context is deprecated, however,
4792 because it clobbers your subroutine arguments.
4794 If EXPR is omitted, splits the C<$_> string. If PATTERN is also omitted,
4795 splits on whitespace (after skipping any leading whitespace). Anything
4796 matching PATTERN is taken to be a delimiter separating the fields. (Note
4797 that the delimiter may be longer than one character.)
4799 If LIMIT is specified and positive, it represents the maximum number
4800 of fields the EXPR will be split into, though the actual number of
4801 fields returned depends on the number of times PATTERN matches within
4802 EXPR. If LIMIT is unspecified or zero, trailing null fields are
4803 stripped (which potential users of C<pop> would do well to remember).
4804 If LIMIT is negative, it is treated as if an arbitrarily large LIMIT
4805 had been specified. Note that splitting an EXPR that evaluates to the
4806 empty string always returns the empty list, regardless of the LIMIT
4809 A pattern matching the null string (not to be confused with
4810 a null pattern C<//>, which is just one member of the set of patterns
4811 matching a null string) will split the value of EXPR into separate
4812 characters at each point it matches that way. For example:
4814 print join(':', split(/ */, 'hi there'));
4816 produces the output 'h:i:t:h:e:r:e'.
4818 Using the empty pattern C<//> specifically matches the null string, and is
4819 not be confused with the use of C<//> to mean "the last successful pattern
4822 Empty leading (or trailing) fields are produced when there are positive width
4823 matches at the beginning (or end) of the string; a zero-width match at the
4824 beginning (or end) of the string does not produce an empty field. For
4827 print join(':', split(/(?=\w)/, 'hi there!'));
4829 produces the output 'h:i :t:h:e:r:e!'.
4831 The LIMIT parameter can be used to split a line partially
4833 ($login, $passwd, $remainder) = split(/:/, $_, 3);
4835 When assigning to a list, if LIMIT is omitted, Perl supplies a LIMIT
4836 one larger than the number of variables in the list, to avoid
4837 unnecessary work. For the list above LIMIT would have been 4 by
4838 default. In time critical applications it behooves you not to split
4839 into more fields than you really need.
4841 If the PATTERN contains parentheses, additional list elements are
4842 created from each matching substring in the delimiter.
4844 split(/([,-])/, "1-10,20", 3);
4846 produces the list value
4848 (1, '-', 10, ',', 20)
4850 If you had the entire header of a normal Unix email message in $header,
4851 you could split it up into fields and their values this way:
4853 $header =~ s/\n\s+/ /g; # fix continuation lines
4854 %hdrs = (UNIX_FROM => split /^(\S*?):\s*/m, $header);
4856 The pattern C</PATTERN/> may be replaced with an expression to specify
4857 patterns that vary at runtime. (To do runtime compilation only once,
4858 use C</$variable/o>.)
4860 As a special case, specifying a PATTERN of space (S<C<' '>>) will split on
4861 white space just as C<split> with no arguments does. Thus, S<C<split(' ')>> can
4862 be used to emulate B<awk>'s default behavior, whereas S<C<split(/ /)>>
4863 will give you as many null initial fields as there are leading spaces.
4864 A C<split> on C</\s+/> is like a S<C<split(' ')>> except that any leading
4865 whitespace produces a null first field. A C<split> with no arguments
4866 really does a S<C<split(' ', $_)>> internally.
4868 A PATTERN of C</^/> is treated as if it were C</^/m>, since it isn't
4873 open(PASSWD, '/etc/passwd');
4876 ($login, $passwd, $uid, $gid,
4877 $gcos, $home, $shell) = split(/:/);
4881 As with regular pattern matching, any capturing parentheses that are not
4882 matched in a C<split()> will be set to C<undef> when returned:
4884 @fields = split /(A)|B/, "1A2B3";
4885 # @fields is (1, 'A', 2, undef, 3)
4887 =item sprintf FORMAT, LIST
4889 Returns a string formatted by the usual C<printf> conventions of the C
4890 library function C<sprintf>. See below for more details
4891 and see L<sprintf(3)> or L<printf(3)> on your system for an explanation of
4892 the general principles.
4896 # Format number with up to 8 leading zeroes
4897 $result = sprintf("%08d", $number);
4899 # Round number to 3 digits after decimal point
4900 $rounded = sprintf("%.3f", $number);
4902 Perl does its own C<sprintf> formatting--it emulates the C
4903 function C<sprintf>, but it doesn't use it (except for floating-point
4904 numbers, and even then only the standard modifiers are allowed). As a
4905 result, any non-standard extensions in your local C<sprintf> are not
4906 available from Perl.
4908 Unlike C<printf>, C<sprintf> does not do what you probably mean when you
4909 pass it an array as your first argument. The array is given scalar context,
4910 and instead of using the 0th element of the array as the format, Perl will
4911 use the count of elements in the array as the format, which is almost never
4914 Perl's C<sprintf> permits the following universally-known conversions:
4917 %c a character with the given number
4919 %d a signed integer, in decimal
4920 %u an unsigned integer, in decimal
4921 %o an unsigned integer, in octal
4922 %x an unsigned integer, in hexadecimal
4923 %e a floating-point number, in scientific notation
4924 %f a floating-point number, in fixed decimal notation
4925 %g a floating-point number, in %e or %f notation
4927 In addition, Perl permits the following widely-supported conversions:
4929 %X like %x, but using upper-case letters
4930 %E like %e, but using an upper-case "E"
4931 %G like %g, but with an upper-case "E" (if applicable)
4932 %b an unsigned integer, in binary
4933 %p a pointer (outputs the Perl value's address in hexadecimal)
4934 %n special: *stores* the number of characters output so far
4935 into the next variable in the parameter list
4937 Finally, for backward (and we do mean "backward") compatibility, Perl
4938 permits these unnecessary but widely-supported conversions:
4941 %D a synonym for %ld
4942 %U a synonym for %lu
4943 %O a synonym for %lo
4946 Note that the number of exponent digits in the scientific notation produced
4947 by C<%e>, C<%E>, C<%g> and C<%G> for numbers with the modulus of the
4948 exponent less than 100 is system-dependent: it may be three or less
4949 (zero-padded as necessary). In other words, 1.23 times ten to the
4950 99th may be either "1.23e99" or "1.23e099".
4952 Between the C<%> and the format letter, you may specify a number of
4953 additional attributes controlling the interpretation of the format.
4954 In order, these are:
4958 =item format parameter index
4960 An explicit format parameter index, such as C<2$>. By default sprintf
4961 will format the next unused argument in the list, but this allows you
4962 to take the arguments out of order. Eg:
4964 printf '%2$d %1$d', 12, 34; # prints "34 12"
4965 printf '%3$d %d %1$d', 1, 2, 3; # prints "3 1 1"
4970 space prefix positive number with a space
4971 + prefix positive number with a plus sign
4972 - left-justify within the field
4973 0 use zeros, not spaces, to right-justify
4974 # prefix non-zero octal with "0", non-zero hex with "0x",
4975 non-zero binary with "0b"
4979 printf '<% d>', 12; # prints "< 12>"
4980 printf '<%+d>', 12; # prints "<+12>"
4981 printf '<%6s>', 12; # prints "< 12>"
4982 printf '<%-6s>', 12; # prints "<12 >"
4983 printf '<%06s>', 12; # prints "<000012>"
4984 printf '<%#x>', 12; # prints "<0xc>"
4988 The vector flag C<v>, optionally specifying the join string to use.
4989 This flag tells perl to interpret the supplied string as a vector
4990 of integers, one for each character in the string, separated by
4991 a given string (a dot C<.> by default). This can be useful for
4992 displaying ordinal values of characters in arbitrary strings:
4994 printf "version is v%vd\n", $^V; # Perl's version
4996 Put an asterisk C<*> before the C<v> to override the string to
4997 use to separate the numbers:
4999 printf "address is %*vX\n", ":", $addr; # IPv6 address
5000 printf "bits are %0*v8b\n", " ", $bits; # random bitstring
5002 You can also explicitly specify the argument number to use for
5003 the join string using eg C<*2$v>:
5005 printf '%*4$vX %*4$vX %*4$vX', @addr[1..3], ":"; # 3 IPv6 addresses
5007 =item (minimum) width
5009 Arguments are usually formatted to be only as wide as required to
5010 display the given value. You can override the width by putting
5011 a number here, or get the width from the next argument (with C<*>)
5012 or from a specified argument (with eg C<*2$>):
5014 printf '<%s>', "a"; # prints "<a>"
5015 printf '<%6s>', "a"; # prints "< a>"
5016 printf '<%*s>', 6, "a"; # prints "< a>"
5017 printf '<%*2$s>', "a", 6; # prints "< a>"
5018 printf '<%2s>', "long"; # prints "<long>" (does not truncate)
5020 If a field width obtained through C<*> is negative, it has the same
5021 effect as the C<-> flag: left-justification.
5023 =item precision, or maximum width
5025 You can specify a precision (for numeric conversions) or a maximum
5026 width (for string conversions) by specifying a C<.> followed by a number.
5027 For floating point formats, with the exception of 'g' and 'G', this specifies
5028 the number of decimal places to show (the default being 6), eg:
5030 # these examples are subject to system-specific variation
5031 printf '<%f>', 1; # prints "<1.000000>"
5032 printf '<%.1f>', 1; # prints "<1.0>"
5033 printf '<%.0f>', 1; # prints "<1>"
5034 printf '<%e>', 10; # prints "<1.000000e+01>"
5035 printf '<%.1e>', 10; # prints "<1.0e+01>"
5037 For 'g' and 'G', this specifies the maximum number of digits to show,
5038 including prior to the decimal point as well as after it, eg:
5040 # these examples are subject to system-specific variation
5041 printf '<%g>', 1; # prints "<1>"
5042 printf '<%.10g>', 1; # prints "<1>"
5043 printf '<%g>', 100; # prints "<100>"
5044 printf '<%.1g>', 100; # prints "<1e+02>"
5045 printf '<%.2g>', 100.01; # prints "<1e+02>"
5046 printf '<%.5g>', 100.01; # prints "<100.01>"
5047 printf '<%.4g>', 100.01; # prints "<100>"
5049 For integer conversions, specifying a precision implies that the
5050 output of the number itself should be zero-padded to this width:
5052 printf '<%.6x>', 1; # prints "<000001>"
5053 printf '<%#.6x>', 1; # prints "<0x000001>"
5054 printf '<%-10.6x>', 1; # prints "<000001 >"
5056 For string conversions, specifying a precision truncates the string
5057 to fit in the specified width:
5059 printf '<%.5s>', "truncated"; # prints "<trunc>"
5060 printf '<%10.5s>', "truncated"; # prints "< trunc>"
5062 You can also get the precision from the next argument using C<.*>:
5064 printf '<%.6x>', 1; # prints "<000001>"
5065 printf '<%.*x>', 6, 1; # prints "<000001>"
5067 You cannot currently get the precision from a specified number,
5068 but it is intended that this will be possible in the future using
5071 printf '<%.*2$x>', 1, 6; # INVALID, but in future will print "<000001>"
5075 For numeric conversions, you can specify the size to interpret the
5076 number as using C<l>, C<h>, C<V>, C<q>, C<L>, or C<ll>. For integer
5077 conversions (C<d u o x X b i D U O>), numbers are usually assumed to be
5078 whatever the default integer size is on your platform (usually 32 or 64
5079 bits), but you can override this to use instead one of the standard C types,
5080 as supported by the compiler used to build Perl:
5082 l interpret integer as C type "long" or "unsigned long"
5083 h interpret integer as C type "short" or "unsigned short"
5084 q, L or ll interpret integer as C type "long long", "unsigned long long".
5085 or "quads" (typically 64-bit integers)
5087 The last will produce errors if Perl does not understand "quads" in your
5088 installation. (This requires that either the platform natively supports quads
5089 or Perl was specifically compiled to support quads.) You can find out
5090 whether your Perl supports quads via L<Config>:
5093 ($Config{use64bitint} eq 'define' || $Config{longsize} >= 8) &&
5096 For floating point conversions (C<e f g E F G>), numbers are usually assumed
5097 to be the default floating point size on your platform (double or long double),
5098 but you can force 'long double' with C<q>, C<L>, or C<ll> if your
5099 platform supports them. You can find out whether your Perl supports long
5100 doubles via L<Config>:
5103 $Config{d_longdbl} eq 'define' && print "long doubles\n";
5105 You can find out whether Perl considers 'long double' to be the default
5106 floating point size to use on your platform via L<Config>:
5109 ($Config{uselongdouble} eq 'define') &&
5110 print "long doubles by default\n";
5112 It can also be the case that long doubles and doubles are the same thing:
5115 ($Config{doublesize} == $Config{longdblsize}) &&
5116 print "doubles are long doubles\n";
5118 The size specifier C<V> has no effect for Perl code, but it is supported
5119 for compatibility with XS code; it means 'use the standard size for
5120 a Perl integer (or floating-point number)', which is already the
5121 default for Perl code.
5123 =item order of arguments
5125 Normally, sprintf takes the next unused argument as the value to
5126 format for each format specification. If the format specification
5127 uses C<*> to require additional arguments, these are consumed from
5128 the argument list in the order in which they appear in the format
5129 specification I<before> the value to format. Where an argument is
5130 specified using an explicit index, this does not affect the normal
5131 order for the arguments (even when the explicitly specified index
5132 would have been the next argument in any case).
5136 printf '<%*.*s>', $a, $b, $c;
5138 would use C<$a> for the width, C<$b> for the precision and C<$c>
5139 as the value to format, while:
5141 print '<%*1$.*s>', $a, $b;
5143 would use C<$a> for the width and the precision, and C<$b> as the
5146 Here are some more examples - beware that when using an explicit
5147 index, the C<$> may need to be escaped:
5149 printf "%2\$d %d\n", 12, 34; # will print "34 12\n"
5150 printf "%2\$d %d %d\n", 12, 34; # will print "34 12 34\n"
5151 printf "%3\$d %d %d\n", 12, 34, 56; # will print "56 12 34\n"
5152 printf "%2\$*3\$d %d\n", 12, 34, 3; # will print " 34 12\n"
5156 If C<use locale> is in effect, the character used for the decimal
5157 point in formatted real numbers is affected by the LC_NUMERIC locale.
5164 Return the square root of EXPR. If EXPR is omitted, returns square
5165 root of C<$_>. Only works on non-negative operands, unless you've
5166 loaded the standard Math::Complex module.
5169 print sqrt(-2); # prints 1.4142135623731i
5175 Sets the random number seed for the C<rand> operator.
5177 The point of the function is to "seed" the C<rand> function so that
5178 C<rand> can produce a different sequence each time you run your
5181 If srand() is not called explicitly, it is called implicitly at the
5182 first use of the C<rand> operator. However, this was not the case in
5183 versions of Perl before 5.004, so if your script will run under older
5184 Perl versions, it should call C<srand>.
5186 Most programs won't even call srand() at all, except those that
5187 need a cryptographically-strong starting point rather than the
5188 generally acceptable default, which is based on time of day,
5189 process ID, and memory allocation, or the F</dev/urandom> device,
5192 You can call srand($seed) with the same $seed to reproduce the
5193 I<same> sequence from rand(), but this is usually reserved for
5194 generating predictable results for testing or debugging.
5195 Otherwise, don't call srand() more than once in your program.
5197 Do B<not> call srand() (i.e. without an argument) more than once in
5198 a script. The internal state of the random number generator should
5199 contain more entropy than can be provided by any seed, so calling
5200 srand() again actually I<loses> randomness.
5202 Most implementations of C<srand> take an integer and will silently
5203 truncate decimal numbers. This means C<srand(42)> will usually
5204 produce the same results as C<srand(42.1)>. To be safe, always pass
5205 C<srand> an integer.
5207 In versions of Perl prior to 5.004 the default seed was just the
5208 current C<time>. This isn't a particularly good seed, so many old
5209 programs supply their own seed value (often C<time ^ $$> or C<time ^
5210 ($$ + ($$ << 15))>), but that isn't necessary any more.
5212 Note that you need something much more random than the default seed for
5213 cryptographic purposes. Checksumming the compressed output of one or more
5214 rapidly changing operating system status programs is the usual method. For
5217 srand (time ^ $$ ^ unpack "%L*", `ps axww | gzip`);
5219 If you're particularly concerned with this, see the C<Math::TrulyRandom>
5222 Frequently called programs (like CGI scripts) that simply use
5226 for a seed can fall prey to the mathematical property that
5230 one-third of the time. So don't do that.
5232 =item stat FILEHANDLE
5238 Returns a 13-element list giving the status info for a file, either
5239 the file opened via FILEHANDLE, or named by EXPR. If EXPR is omitted,
5240 it stats C<$_>. Returns a null list if the stat fails. Typically used
5243 ($dev,$ino,$mode,$nlink,$uid,$gid,$rdev,$size,
5244 $atime,$mtime,$ctime,$blksize,$blocks)
5247 Not all fields are supported on all filesystem types. Here are the
5248 meaning of the fields:
5250 0 dev device number of filesystem
5252 2 mode file mode (type and permissions)
5253 3 nlink number of (hard) links to the file
5254 4 uid numeric user ID of file's owner
5255 5 gid numeric group ID of file's owner
5256 6 rdev the device identifier (special files only)
5257 7 size total size of file, in bytes
5258 8 atime last access time in seconds since the epoch
5259 9 mtime last modify time in seconds since the epoch
5260 10 ctime inode change time in seconds since the epoch (*)
5261 11 blksize preferred block size for file system I/O
5262 12 blocks actual number of blocks allocated
5264 (The epoch was at 00:00 January 1, 1970 GMT.)
5266 (*) The ctime field is non-portable, in particular you cannot expect
5267 it to be a "creation time", see L<perlport/"Files and Filesystems">
5270 If stat is passed the special filehandle consisting of an underline, no
5271 stat is done, but the current contents of the stat structure from the
5272 last stat or filetest are returned. Example:
5274 if (-x $file && (($d) = stat(_)) && $d < 0) {
5275 print "$file is executable NFS file\n";
5278 (This works on machines only for which the device number is negative
5281 Because the mode contains both the file type and its permissions, you
5282 should mask off the file type portion and (s)printf using a C<"%o">
5283 if you want to see the real permissions.
5285 $mode = (stat($filename))[2];
5286 printf "Permissions are %04o\n", $mode & 07777;
5288 In scalar context, C<stat> returns a boolean value indicating success
5289 or failure, and, if successful, sets the information associated with
5290 the special filehandle C<_>.
5292 The File::stat module provides a convenient, by-name access mechanism:
5295 $sb = stat($filename);
5296 printf "File is %s, size is %s, perm %04o, mtime %s\n",
5297 $filename, $sb->size, $sb->mode & 07777,
5298 scalar localtime $sb->mtime;
5300 You can import symbolic mode constants (C<S_IF*>) and functions
5301 (C<S_IS*>) from the Fcntl module:
5305 $mode = (stat($filename))[2];
5307 $user_rwx = ($mode & S_IRWXU) >> 6;
5308 $group_read = ($mode & S_IRGRP) >> 3;
5309 $other_execute = $mode & S_IXOTH;
5311 printf "Permissions are %04o\n", S_IMODE($mode), "\n";
5313 $is_setuid = $mode & S_ISUID;
5314 $is_setgid = S_ISDIR($mode);
5316 You could write the last two using the C<-u> and C<-d> operators.
5317 The commonly available S_IF* constants are
5319 # Permissions: read, write, execute, for user, group, others.
5321 S_IRWXU S_IRUSR S_IWUSR S_IXUSR
5322 S_IRWXG S_IRGRP S_IWGRP S_IXGRP
5323 S_IRWXO S_IROTH S_IWOTH S_IXOTH
5325 # Setuid/Setgid/Stickiness/SaveText.
5326 # Note that the exact meaning of these is system dependent.
5328 S_ISUID S_ISGID S_ISVTX S_ISTXT
5330 # File types. Not necessarily all are available on your system.
5332 S_IFREG S_IFDIR S_IFLNK S_IFBLK S_ISCHR S_IFIFO S_IFSOCK S_IFWHT S_ENFMT
5334 # The following are compatibility aliases for S_IRUSR, S_IWUSR, S_IXUSR.
5336 S_IREAD S_IWRITE S_IEXEC
5338 and the S_IF* functions are
5340 S_IMODE($mode) the part of $mode containing the permission bits
5341 and the setuid/setgid/sticky bits
5343 S_IFMT($mode) the part of $mode containing the file type
5344 which can be bit-anded with e.g. S_IFREG
5345 or with the following functions
5347 # The operators -f, -d, -l, -b, -c, -p, and -s.
5349 S_ISREG($mode) S_ISDIR($mode) S_ISLNK($mode)
5350 S_ISBLK($mode) S_ISCHR($mode) S_ISFIFO($mode) S_ISSOCK($mode)
5352 # No direct -X operator counterpart, but for the first one
5353 # the -g operator is often equivalent. The ENFMT stands for
5354 # record flocking enforcement, a platform-dependent feature.
5356 S_ISENFMT($mode) S_ISWHT($mode)
5358 See your native chmod(2) and stat(2) documentation for more details
5359 about the S_* constants. To get status info for a symbolic link
5360 instead of the target file behind the link, use the C<lstat> function.
5366 Takes extra time to study SCALAR (C<$_> if unspecified) in anticipation of
5367 doing many pattern matches on the string before it is next modified.
5368 This may or may not save time, depending on the nature and number of
5369 patterns you are searching on, and on the distribution of character
5370 frequencies in the string to be searched--you probably want to compare
5371 run times with and without it to see which runs faster. Those loops
5372 which scan for many short constant strings (including the constant
5373 parts of more complex patterns) will benefit most. You may have only
5374 one C<study> active at a time--if you study a different scalar the first
5375 is "unstudied". (The way C<study> works is this: a linked list of every
5376 character in the string to be searched is made, so we know, for
5377 example, where all the C<'k'> characters are. From each search string,
5378 the rarest character is selected, based on some static frequency tables
5379 constructed from some C programs and English text. Only those places
5380 that contain this "rarest" character are examined.)
5382 For example, here is a loop that inserts index producing entries
5383 before any line containing a certain pattern:
5387 print ".IX foo\n" if /\bfoo\b/;
5388 print ".IX bar\n" if /\bbar\b/;
5389 print ".IX blurfl\n" if /\bblurfl\b/;
5394 In searching for C</\bfoo\b/>, only those locations in C<$_> that contain C<f>
5395 will be looked at, because C<f> is rarer than C<o>. In general, this is
5396 a big win except in pathological cases. The only question is whether
5397 it saves you more time than it took to build the linked list in the
5400 Note that if you have to look for strings that you don't know till
5401 runtime, you can build an entire loop as a string and C<eval> that to
5402 avoid recompiling all your patterns all the time. Together with
5403 undefining C<$/> to input entire files as one record, this can be very
5404 fast, often faster than specialized programs like fgrep(1). The following
5405 scans a list of files (C<@files>) for a list of words (C<@words>), and prints
5406 out the names of those files that contain a match:
5408 $search = 'while (<>) { study;';
5409 foreach $word (@words) {
5410 $search .= "++\$seen{\$ARGV} if /\\b$word\\b/;\n";
5415 eval $search; # this screams
5416 $/ = "\n"; # put back to normal input delimiter
5417 foreach $file (sort keys(%seen)) {
5421 =item sub NAME BLOCK
5423 =item sub NAME (PROTO) BLOCK
5425 =item sub NAME : ATTRS BLOCK
5427 =item sub NAME (PROTO) : ATTRS BLOCK
5429 This is subroutine definition, not a real function I<per se>.
5430 Without a BLOCK it's just a forward declaration. Without a NAME,
5431 it's an anonymous function declaration, and does actually return
5432 a value: the CODE ref of the closure you just created.
5434 See L<perlsub> and L<perlref> for details about subroutines and
5435 references, and L<attributes> and L<Attribute::Handlers> for more
5436 information about attributes.
5438 =item substr EXPR,OFFSET,LENGTH,REPLACEMENT
5440 =item substr EXPR,OFFSET,LENGTH
5442 =item substr EXPR,OFFSET
5444 Extracts a substring out of EXPR and returns it. First character is at
5445 offset C<0>, or whatever you've set C<$[> to (but don't do that).
5446 If OFFSET is negative (or more precisely, less than C<$[>), starts
5447 that far from the end of the string. If LENGTH is omitted, returns
5448 everything to the end of the string. If LENGTH is negative, leaves that
5449 many characters off the end of the string.
5451 You can use the substr() function as an lvalue, in which case EXPR
5452 must itself be an lvalue. If you assign something shorter than LENGTH,
5453 the string will shrink, and if you assign something longer than LENGTH,
5454 the string will grow to accommodate it. To keep the string the same
5455 length you may need to pad or chop your value using C<sprintf>.
5457 If OFFSET and LENGTH specify a substring that is partly outside the
5458 string, only the part within the string is returned. If the substring
5459 is beyond either end of the string, substr() returns the undefined
5460 value and produces a warning. When used as an lvalue, specifying a
5461 substring that is entirely outside the string is a fatal error.
5462 Here's an example showing the behavior for boundary cases:
5465 substr($name, 4) = 'dy'; # $name is now 'freddy'
5466 my $null = substr $name, 6, 2; # returns '' (no warning)
5467 my $oops = substr $name, 7; # returns undef, with warning
5468 substr($name, 7) = 'gap'; # fatal error
5470 An alternative to using substr() as an lvalue is to specify the
5471 replacement string as the 4th argument. This allows you to replace
5472 parts of the EXPR and return what was there before in one operation,
5473 just as you can with splice().
5475 If the lvalue returned by substr is used after the EXPR is changed in
5476 any way, the behaviour may not be as expected and is subject to change.
5477 This caveat includes code such as C<print(substr($foo,$a,$b)=$bar)> or
5478 C<(substr($foo,$a,$b)=$bar)=$fud> (where $foo is changed via the
5479 substring assignment, and then the substr is used again), or where a
5480 substr() is aliased via a C<foreach> loop or passed as a parameter or
5481 a reference to it is taken and then the alias, parameter, or deref'd
5482 reference either is used after the original EXPR has been changed or
5483 is assigned to and then used a second time.
5485 =item symlink OLDFILE,NEWFILE
5487 Creates a new filename symbolically linked to the old filename.
5488 Returns C<1> for success, C<0> otherwise. On systems that don't support
5489 symbolic links, produces a fatal error at run time. To check for that,
5492 $symlink_exists = eval { symlink("",""); 1 };
5496 Calls the system call specified as the first element of the list,
5497 passing the remaining elements as arguments to the system call. If
5498 unimplemented, produces a fatal error. The arguments are interpreted
5499 as follows: if a given argument is numeric, the argument is passed as
5500 an int. If not, the pointer to the string value is passed. You are
5501 responsible to make sure a string is pre-extended long enough to
5502 receive any result that might be written into a string. You can't use a
5503 string literal (or other read-only string) as an argument to C<syscall>
5504 because Perl has to assume that any string pointer might be written
5506 integer arguments are not literals and have never been interpreted in a
5507 numeric context, you may need to add C<0> to them to force them to look
5508 like numbers. This emulates the C<syswrite> function (or vice versa):
5510 require 'syscall.ph'; # may need to run h2ph
5512 syscall(&SYS_write, fileno(STDOUT), $s, length $s);
5514 Note that Perl supports passing of up to only 14 arguments to your system call,
5515 which in practice should usually suffice.
5517 Syscall returns whatever value returned by the system call it calls.
5518 If the system call fails, C<syscall> returns C<-1> and sets C<$!> (errno).
5519 Note that some system calls can legitimately return C<-1>. The proper
5520 way to handle such calls is to assign C<$!=0;> before the call and
5521 check the value of C<$!> if syscall returns C<-1>.
5523 There's a problem with C<syscall(&SYS_pipe)>: it returns the file
5524 number of the read end of the pipe it creates. There is no way
5525 to retrieve the file number of the other end. You can avoid this
5526 problem by using C<pipe> instead.
5528 =item sysopen FILEHANDLE,FILENAME,MODE
5530 =item sysopen FILEHANDLE,FILENAME,MODE,PERMS
5532 Opens the file whose filename is given by FILENAME, and associates it
5533 with FILEHANDLE. If FILEHANDLE is an expression, its value is used as
5534 the name of the real filehandle wanted. This function calls the
5535 underlying operating system's C<open> function with the parameters
5536 FILENAME, MODE, PERMS.
5538 The possible values and flag bits of the MODE parameter are
5539 system-dependent; they are available via the standard module C<Fcntl>.
5540 See the documentation of your operating system's C<open> to see which
5541 values and flag bits are available. You may combine several flags
5542 using the C<|>-operator.
5544 Some of the most common values are C<O_RDONLY> for opening the file in
5545 read-only mode, C<O_WRONLY> for opening the file in write-only mode,
5546 and C<O_RDWR> for opening the file in read-write mode, and.
5548 For historical reasons, some values work on almost every system
5549 supported by perl: zero means read-only, one means write-only, and two
5550 means read/write. We know that these values do I<not> work under
5551 OS/390 & VM/ESA Unix and on the Macintosh; you probably don't want to
5552 use them in new code.
5554 If the file named by FILENAME does not exist and the C<open> call creates
5555 it (typically because MODE includes the C<O_CREAT> flag), then the value of
5556 PERMS specifies the permissions of the newly created file. If you omit
5557 the PERMS argument to C<sysopen>, Perl uses the octal value C<0666>.
5558 These permission values need to be in octal, and are modified by your
5559 process's current C<umask>.
5561 In many systems the C<O_EXCL> flag is available for opening files in
5562 exclusive mode. This is B<not> locking: exclusiveness means here that
5563 if the file already exists, sysopen() fails. The C<O_EXCL> wins
5566 Sometimes you may want to truncate an already-existing file: C<O_TRUNC>.
5568 You should seldom if ever use C<0644> as argument to C<sysopen>, because
5569 that takes away the user's option to have a more permissive umask.
5570 Better to omit it. See the perlfunc(1) entry on C<umask> for more
5573 Note that C<sysopen> depends on the fdopen() C library function.
5574 On many UNIX systems, fdopen() is known to fail when file descriptors
5575 exceed a certain value, typically 255. If you need more file
5576 descriptors than that, consider rebuilding Perl to use the C<sfio>
5577 library, or perhaps using the POSIX::open() function.
5579 See L<perlopentut> for a kinder, gentler explanation of opening files.
5581 =item sysread FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH,OFFSET
5583 =item sysread FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH
5585 Attempts to read LENGTH I<characters> of data into variable SCALAR
5586 from the specified FILEHANDLE, using the system call read(2). It
5587 bypasses buffered IO, so mixing this with other kinds of reads,
5588 C<print>, C<write>, C<seek>, C<tell>, or C<eof> can cause confusion
5589 because stdio usually buffers data. Returns the number of characters
5590 actually read, C<0> at end of file, or undef if there was an error (in
5591 the latter case C<$!> is also set). SCALAR will be grown or shrunk so
5592 that the last byte actually read is the last byte of the scalar after
5595 Note the I<characters>: depending on the status of the filehandle,
5596 either (8-bit) bytes or characters are read. By default all
5597 filehandles operate on bytes, but for example if the filehandle has
5598 been opened with the C<:utf8> I/O layer (see L</open>, and the C<open>
5599 pragma, L<open>), the I/O will operate on characters, not bytes.
5601 An OFFSET may be specified to place the read data at some place in the
5602 string other than the beginning. A negative OFFSET specifies
5603 placement at that many characters counting backwards from the end of
5604 the string. A positive OFFSET greater than the length of SCALAR
5605 results in the string being padded to the required size with C<"\0">
5606 bytes before the result of the read is appended.
5608 There is no syseof() function, which is ok, since eof() doesn't work
5609 very well on device files (like ttys) anyway. Use sysread() and check
5610 for a return value for 0 to decide whether you're done.
5612 =item sysseek FILEHANDLE,POSITION,WHENCE
5614 Sets FILEHANDLE's system position I<in bytes> using the system call
5615 lseek(2). FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name
5616 of the filehandle. The values for WHENCE are C<0> to set the new
5617 position to POSITION, C<1> to set the it to the current position plus
5618 POSITION, and C<2> to set it to EOF plus POSITION (typically
5621 Note the I<in bytes>: even if the filehandle has been set to operate
5622 on characters (for example by using the C<:utf8> I/O layer), tell()
5623 will return byte offsets, not character offsets (because implementing
5624 that would render sysseek() very slow).
5626 sysseek() bypasses normal buffered io, so mixing this with reads (other
5627 than C<sysread>, for example >< or read()) C<print>, C<write>,
5628 C<seek>, C<tell>, or C<eof> may cause confusion.
5630 For WHENCE, you may also use the constants C<SEEK_SET>, C<SEEK_CUR>,
5631 and C<SEEK_END> (start of the file, current position, end of the file)
5632 from the Fcntl module. Use of the constants is also more portable
5633 than relying on 0, 1, and 2. For example to define a "systell" function:
5635 use Fnctl 'SEEK_CUR';
5636 sub systell { sysseek($_[0], 0, SEEK_CUR) }
5638 Returns the new position, or the undefined value on failure. A position
5639 of zero is returned as the string C<"0 but true">; thus C<sysseek> returns
5640 true on success and false on failure, yet you can still easily determine
5645 =item system PROGRAM LIST
5647 Does exactly the same thing as C<exec LIST>, except that a fork is
5648 done first, and the parent process waits for the child process to
5649 complete. Note that argument processing varies depending on the
5650 number of arguments. If there is more than one argument in LIST,
5651 or if LIST is an array with more than one value, starts the program
5652 given by the first element of the list with arguments given by the
5653 rest of the list. If there is only one scalar argument, the argument
5654 is checked for shell metacharacters, and if there are any, the
5655 entire argument is passed to the system's command shell for parsing
5656 (this is C</bin/sh -c> on Unix platforms, but varies on other
5657 platforms). If there are no shell metacharacters in the argument,
5658 it is split into words and passed directly to C<execvp>, which is
5661 Beginning with v5.6.0, Perl will attempt to flush all files opened for
5662 output before any operation that may do a fork, but this may not be
5663 supported on some platforms (see L<perlport>). To be safe, you may need
5664 to set C<$|> ($AUTOFLUSH in English) or call the C<autoflush()> method
5665 of C<IO::Handle> on any open handles.
5667 The return value is the exit status of the program as returned by the
5668 C<wait> call. To get the actual exit value shift right by eight (see below).
5669 See also L</exec>. This is I<not> what you want to use to capture
5670 the output from a command, for that you should use merely backticks or
5671 C<qx//>, as described in L<perlop/"`STRING`">. Return value of -1
5672 indicates a failure to start the program (inspect $! for the reason).
5674 Like C<exec>, C<system> allows you to lie to a program about its name if
5675 you use the C<system PROGRAM LIST> syntax. Again, see L</exec>.
5677 Because C<system> and backticks block C<SIGINT> and C<SIGQUIT>,
5678 killing the program they're running doesn't actually interrupt
5681 @args = ("command", "arg1", "arg2");
5683 or die "system @args failed: $?"
5685 You can check all the failure possibilities by inspecting
5688 $exit_value = $? >> 8;
5689 $signal_num = $? & 127;
5690 $dumped_core = $? & 128;
5692 or more portably by using the W*() calls of the POSIX extension;
5693 see L<perlport> for more information.
5695 When the arguments get executed via the system shell, results
5696 and return codes will be subject to its quirks and capabilities.
5697 See L<perlop/"`STRING`"> and L</exec> for details.
5699 =item syswrite FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH,OFFSET
5701 =item syswrite FILEHANDLE,SCALAR,LENGTH
5703 =item syswrite FILEHANDLE,SCALAR
5705 Attempts to write LENGTH characters of data from variable SCALAR to
5706 the specified FILEHANDLE, using the system call write(2). If LENGTH
5707 is not specified, writes whole SCALAR. It bypasses buffered IO, so
5708 mixing this with reads (other than C<sysread())>, C<print>, C<write>,
5709 C<seek>, C<tell>, or C<eof> may cause confusion because stdio usually
5710 buffers data. Returns the number of characters actually written, or
5711 C<undef> if there was an error (in this case the errno variable C<$!>
5712 is also set). If the LENGTH is greater than the available data in the
5713 SCALAR after the OFFSET, only as much data as is available will be
5716 An OFFSET may be specified to write the data from some part of the
5717 string other than the beginning. A negative OFFSET specifies writing
5718 that many characters counting backwards from the end of the string.
5719 In the case the SCALAR is empty you can use OFFSET but only zero offset.
5721 Note the I<characters>: depending on the status of the filehandle,
5722 either (8-bit) bytes or characters are written. By default all
5723 filehandles operate on bytes, but for example if the filehandle has
5724 been opened with the C<:utf8> I/O layer (see L</open>, and the open
5725 pragma, L<open>), the I/O will operate on characters, not bytes.
5727 =item tell FILEHANDLE
5731 Returns the current position I<in bytes> for FILEHANDLE, or -1 on
5732 error. FILEHANDLE may be an expression whose value gives the name of
5733 the actual filehandle. If FILEHANDLE is omitted, assumes the file
5736 Note the I<in bytes>: even if the filehandle has been set to
5737 operate on characters (for example by using the C<:utf8> open
5738 layer), tell() will return byte offsets, not character offsets
5739 (because that would render seek() and tell() rather slow).
5741 The return value of tell() for the standard streams like the STDIN
5742 depends on the operating system: it may return -1 or something else.
5743 tell() on pipes, fifos, and sockets usually returns -1.
5745 There is no C<systell> function. Use C<sysseek(FH, 0, 1)> for that.
5747 Do not use tell() on a filehandle that has been opened using
5748 sysopen(), use sysseek() for that as described above. Why? Because
5749 sysopen() creates unbuffered, "raw", filehandles, while open() creates
5750 buffered filehandles. sysseek() make sense only on the first kind,
5751 tell() only makes sense on the second kind.
5753 =item telldir DIRHANDLE
5755 Returns the current position of the C<readdir> routines on DIRHANDLE.
5756 Value may be given to C<seekdir> to access a particular location in a
5757 directory. Has the same caveats about possible directory compaction as
5758 the corresponding system library routine.
5760 =item tie VARIABLE,CLASSNAME,LIST
5762 This function binds a variable to a package class that will provide the
5763 implementation for the variable. VARIABLE is the name of the variable
5764 to be enchanted. CLASSNAME is the name of a class implementing objects
5765 of correct type. Any additional arguments are passed to the C<new>
5766 method of the class (meaning C<TIESCALAR>, C<TIEHANDLE>, C<TIEARRAY>,
5767 or C<TIEHASH>). Typically these are arguments such as might be passed
5768 to the C<dbm_open()> function of C. The object returned by the C<new>
5769 method is also returned by the C<tie> function, which would be useful
5770 if you want to access other methods in CLASSNAME.
5772 Note that functions such as C<keys> and C<values> may return huge lists
5773 when used on large objects, like DBM files. You may prefer to use the
5774 C<each> function to iterate over such. Example:
5776 # print out history file offsets
5778 tie(%HIST, 'NDBM_File', '/usr/lib/news/history', 1, 0);
5779 while (($key,$val) = each %HIST) {
5780 print $key, ' = ', unpack('L',$val), "\n";
5784 A class implementing a hash should have the following methods:
5786 TIEHASH classname, LIST
5788 STORE this, key, value
5793 NEXTKEY this, lastkey
5797 A class implementing an ordinary array should have the following methods:
5799 TIEARRAY classname, LIST
5801 STORE this, key, value
5803 STORESIZE this, count
5809 SPLICE this, offset, length, LIST
5814 A class implementing a file handle should have the following methods:
5816 TIEHANDLE classname, LIST
5817 READ this, scalar, length, offset
5820 WRITE this, scalar, length, offset
5822 PRINTF this, format, LIST
5826 SEEK this, position, whence
5828 OPEN this, mode, LIST
5833 A class implementing a scalar should have the following methods:
5835 TIESCALAR classname, LIST
5841 Not all methods indicated above need be implemented. See L<perltie>,
5842 L<Tie::Hash>, L<Tie::Array>, L<Tie::Scalar>, and L<Tie::Handle>.
5844 Unlike C<dbmopen>, the C<tie> function will not use or require a module
5845 for you--you need to do that explicitly yourself. See L<DB_File>
5846 or the F<Config> module for interesting C<tie> implementations.
5848 For further details see L<perltie>, L<"tied VARIABLE">.
5852 Returns a reference to the object underlying VARIABLE (the same value
5853 that was originally returned by the C<tie> call that bound the variable
5854 to a package.) Returns the undefined value if VARIABLE isn't tied to a
5859 Returns the number of non-leap seconds since whatever time the system
5860 considers to be the epoch (that's 00:00:00, January 1, 1904 for Mac OS,
5861 and 00:00:00 UTC, January 1, 1970 for most other systems).
5862 Suitable for feeding to C<gmtime> and C<localtime>.
5864 For measuring time in better granularity than one second,
5865 you may use either the Time::HiRes module (from CPAN, and starting from
5866 Perl 5.8 part of the standard distribution), or if you have
5867 gettimeofday(2), you may be able to use the C<syscall> interface of Perl.
5868 See L<perlfaq8> for details.
5872 Returns a four-element list giving the user and system times, in
5873 seconds, for this process and the children of this process.
5875 ($user,$system,$cuser,$csystem) = times;
5877 In scalar context, C<times> returns C<$user>.
5881 The transliteration operator. Same as C<y///>. See L<perlop>.
5883 =item truncate FILEHANDLE,LENGTH
5885 =item truncate EXPR,LENGTH
5887 Truncates the file opened on FILEHANDLE, or named by EXPR, to the
5888 specified length. Produces a fatal error if truncate isn't implemented
5889 on your system. Returns true if successful, the undefined value
5892 The behavior is undefined if LENGTH is greater than the length of the
5899 Returns an uppercased version of EXPR. This is the internal function
5900 implementing the C<\U> escape in double-quoted strings. Respects
5901 current LC_CTYPE locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale>
5902 and L<perlunicode> for more details about locale and Unicode support.
5903 It does not attempt to do titlecase mapping on initial letters. See
5904 C<ucfirst> for that.
5906 If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
5912 Returns the value of EXPR with the first character in uppercase
5913 (titlecase in Unicode). This is the internal function implementing
5914 the C<\u> escape in double-quoted strings. Respects current LC_CTYPE
5915 locale if C<use locale> in force. See L<perllocale> and L<perlunicode>
5916 for more details about locale and Unicode support.
5918 If EXPR is omitted, uses C<$_>.
5924 Sets the umask for the process to EXPR and returns the previous value.
5925 If EXPR is omitted, merely returns the current umask.
5927 The Unix permission C<rwxr-x---> is represented as three sets of three
5928 bits, or three octal digits: C<0750> (the leading 0 indicates octal
5929 and isn't one of the digits). The C<umask> value is such a number
5930 representing disabled permissions bits. The permission (or "mode")
5931 values you pass C<mkdir> or C<sysopen> are modified by your umask, so
5932 even if you tell C<sysopen> to create a file with permissions C<0777>,
5933 if your umask is C<0022> then the file will actually be created with
5934 permissions C<0755>. If your C<umask> were C<0027> (group can't
5935 write; others can't read, write, or execute), then passing
5936 C<sysopen> C<0666> would create a file with mode C<0640> (C<0666 &~
5939 Here's some advice: supply a creation mode of C<0666> for regular
5940 files (in C<sysopen>) and one of C<0777> for directories (in
5941 C<mkdir>) and executable files. This gives users the freedom of
5942 choice: if they want protected files, they might choose process umasks
5943 of C<022>, C<027>, or even the particularly antisocial mask of C<077>.
5944 Programs should rarely if ever make policy decisions better left to
5945 the user. The exception to this is when writing files that should be
5946 kept private: mail files, web browser cookies, I<.rhosts> files, and
5949 If umask(2) is not implemented on your system and you are trying to
5950 restrict access for I<yourself> (i.e., (EXPR & 0700) > 0), produces a
5951 fatal error at run time. If umask(2) is not implemented and you are
5952 not trying to restrict access for yourself, returns C<undef>.
5954 Remember that a umask is a number, usually given in octal; it is I<not> a
5955 string of octal digits. See also L</oct>, if all you have is a string.
5961 Undefines the value of EXPR, which must be an lvalue. Use only on a
5962 scalar value, an array (using C<@>), a hash (using C<%>), a subroutine
5963 (using C<&>), or a typeglob (using <*>). (Saying C<undef $hash{$key}>
5964 will probably not do what you expect on most predefined variables or
5965 DBM list values, so don't do that; see L<delete>.) Always returns the
5966 undefined value. You can omit the EXPR, in which case nothing is
5967 undefined, but you still get an undefined value that you could, for
5968 instance, return from a subroutine, assign to a variable or pass as a
5969 parameter. Examples:
5972 undef $bar{'blurfl'}; # Compare to: delete $bar{'blurfl'};
5976 undef *xyz; # destroys $xyz, @xyz, %xyz, &xyz, etc.
5977 return (wantarray ? (undef, $errmsg) : undef) if $they_blew_it;
5978 select undef, undef, undef, 0.25;
5979 ($a, $b, undef, $c) = &foo; # Ignore third value returned
5981 Note that this is a unary operator, not a list operator.
5987 Deletes a list of files. Returns the number of files successfully
5990 $cnt = unlink 'a', 'b', 'c';
5994 Note: C<unlink> will not delete directories unless you are superuser and
5995 the B<-U> flag is supplied to Perl. Even if these conditions are
5996 met, be warned that unlinking a directory can inflict damage on your
5997 filesystem. Use C<rmdir> instead.
5999 If LIST is omitted, uses C<$_>.
6001 =item unpack TEMPLATE,EXPR
6003 =item unpack TEMPLATE
6005 C<unpack> does the reverse of C<pack>: it takes a string
6006 and expands it out into a list of values.
6007 (In scalar context, it returns merely the first value produced.)
6009 If EXPR is omitted, unpacks the C<$_> string.
6011 The string is broken into chunks described by the TEMPLATE. Each chunk
6012 is converted separately to a value. Typically, either the string is a result
6013 of C<pack>, or the bytes of the string represent a C structure of some
6016 The TEMPLATE has the same format as in the C<pack> function.
6017 Here's a subroutine that does substring:
6020 my($what,$where,$howmuch) = @_;
6021 unpack("x$where a$howmuch", $what);
6026 sub ordinal { unpack("c",$_[0]); } # same as ord()
6028 In addition to fields allowed in pack(), you may prefix a field with
6029 a %<number> to indicate that
6030 you want a <number>-bit checksum of the items instead of the items
6031 themselves. Default is a 16-bit checksum. Checksum is calculated by
6032 summing numeric values of expanded values (for string fields the sum of
6033 C<ord($char)> is taken, for bit fields the sum of zeroes and ones).
6035 For example, the following
6036 computes the same number as the System V sum program:
6040 unpack("%32C*",<>) % 65535;
6043 The following efficiently counts the number of set bits in a bit vector:
6045 $setbits = unpack("%32b*", $selectmask);
6047 The C<p> and C<P> formats should be used with care. Since Perl
6048 has no way of checking whether the value passed to C<unpack()>
6049 corresponds to a valid memory location, passing a pointer value that's
6050 not known to be valid is likely to have disastrous consequences.
6052 If there are more pack codes or if the repeat count of a field or a group
6053 is larger than what the remainder of the input string allows, the result
6054 is not well defined: in some cases, the repeat count is decreased, or
6055 C<unpack()> will produce null strings or zeroes, or terminate with an
6056 error. If the input string is longer than one described by the TEMPLATE,
6057 the rest is ignored.
6059 See L</pack> for more examples and notes.
6061 =item untie VARIABLE
6063 Breaks the binding between a variable and a package. (See C<tie>.)
6064 Has no effect if the variable is not tied.
6066 =item unshift ARRAY,LIST
6068 Does the opposite of a C<shift>. Or the opposite of a C<push>,
6069 depending on how you look at it. Prepends list to the front of the
6070 array, and returns the new number of elements in the array.
6072 unshift(@ARGV, '-e') unless $ARGV[0] =~ /^-/;
6074 Note the LIST is prepended whole, not one element at a time, so the
6075 prepended elements stay in the same order. Use C<reverse> to do the
6078 =item use Module VERSION LIST
6080 =item use Module VERSION
6082 =item use Module LIST
6088 Imports some semantics into the current package from the named module,
6089 generally by aliasing certain subroutine or variable names into your
6090 package. It is exactly equivalent to
6092 BEGIN { require Module; import Module LIST; }
6094 except that Module I<must> be a bareword.
6096 VERSION may be either a numeric argument such as 5.006, which will be
6097 compared to C<$]>, or a literal of the form v5.6.1, which will be compared
6098 to C<$^V> (aka $PERL_VERSION. A fatal error is produced if VERSION is
6099 greater than the version of the current Perl interpreter; Perl will not
6100 attempt to parse the rest of the file. Compare with L</require>, which can
6101 do a similar check at run time.
6103 Specifying VERSION as a literal of the form v5.6.1 should generally be
6104 avoided, because it leads to misleading error messages under earlier
6105 versions of Perl which do not support this syntax. The equivalent numeric
6106 version should be used instead.
6108 use v5.6.1; # compile time version check
6110 use 5.006_001; # ditto; preferred for backwards compatibility
6112 This is often useful if you need to check the current Perl version before
6113 C<use>ing library modules that have changed in incompatible ways from
6114 older versions of Perl. (We try not to do this more than we have to.)
6116 The C<BEGIN> forces the C<require> and C<import> to happen at compile time. The
6117 C<require> makes sure the module is loaded into memory if it hasn't been
6118 yet. The C<import> is not a builtin--it's just an ordinary static method
6119 call into the C<Module> package to tell the module to import the list of
6120 features back into the current package. The module can implement its
6121 C<import> method any way it likes, though most modules just choose to
6122 derive their C<import> method via inheritance from the C<Exporter> class that
6123 is defined in the C<Exporter> module. See L<Exporter>. If no C<import>
6124 method can be found then the call is skipped.
6126 If you do not want to call the package's C<import> method (for instance,
6127 to stop your namespace from being altered), explicitly supply the empty list:
6131 That is exactly equivalent to
6133 BEGIN { require Module }
6135 If the VERSION argument is present between Module and LIST, then the
6136 C<use> will call the VERSION method in class Module with the given
6137 version as an argument. The default VERSION method, inherited from
6138 the UNIVERSAL class, croaks if the given version is larger than the
6139 value of the variable C<$Module::VERSION>.
6141 Again, there is a distinction between omitting LIST (C<import> called
6142 with no arguments) and an explicit empty LIST C<()> (C<import> not
6143 called). Note that there is no comma after VERSION!
6145 Because this is a wide-open interface, pragmas (compiler directives)
6146 are also implemented this way. Currently implemented pragmas are:
6151 use sigtrap qw(SEGV BUS);
6152 use strict qw(subs vars refs);
6153 use subs qw(afunc blurfl);
6154 use warnings qw(all);
6155 use sort qw(stable _quicksort _mergesort);
6157 Some of these pseudo-modules import semantics into the current
6158 block scope (like C<strict> or C<integer>, unlike ordinary modules,
6159 which import symbols into the current package (which are effective
6160 through the end of the file).
6162 There's a corresponding C<no> command that unimports meanings imported
6163 by C<use>, i.e., it calls C<unimport Module LIST> instead of C<import>.
6169 See L<perlmodlib> for a list of standard modules and pragmas. See L<perlrun>
6170 for the C<-M> and C<-m> command-line options to perl that give C<use>
6171 functionality from the command-line.
6175 Changes the access and modification times on each file of a list of
6176 files. The first two elements of the list must be the NUMERICAL access
6177 and modification times, in that order. Returns the number of files
6178 successfully changed. The inode change time of each file is set
6179 to the current time. For example, this code has the same effect as the
6180 Unix touch(1) command when the files I<already exist>.
6184 utime $now, $now, @ARGV;
6186 B<Note:> Under NFS, touch(1) uses the time of the NFS server, not
6187 the time of the local machine. If there is a time synchronization
6188 problem, the NFS server and local machine will have different times.
6190 Since perl 5.7.2, if the first two elements of the list are C<undef>, then
6191 the utime(2) function in the C library will be called with a null second
6192 argument. On most systems, this will set the file's access and
6193 modification times to the current time (i.e. equivalent to the example
6196 utime undef, undef, @ARGV;
6200 Returns a list consisting of all the values of the named hash. (In a
6201 scalar context, returns the number of values.) The values are
6202 returned in an apparently random order. The actual random order is
6203 subject to change in future versions of perl, but it is guaranteed to
6204 be the same order as either the C<keys> or C<each> function would
6205 produce on the same (unmodified) hash.
6207 Note that the values are not copied, which means modifying them will
6208 modify the contents of the hash:
6210 for (values %hash) { s/foo/bar/g } # modifies %hash values
6211 for (@hash{keys %hash}) { s/foo/bar/g } # same
6213 As a side effect, calling values() resets the HASH's internal iterator.
6214 See also C<keys>, C<each>, and C<sort>.
6216 =item vec EXPR,OFFSET,BITS
6218 Treats the string in EXPR as a bit vector made up of elements of
6219 width BITS, and returns the value of the element specified by OFFSET
6220 as an unsigned integer. BITS therefore specifies the number of bits
6221 that are reserved for each element in the bit vector. This must
6222 be a power of two from 1 to 32 (or 64, if your platform supports
6225 If BITS is 8, "elements" coincide with bytes of the input string.
6227 If BITS is 16 or more, bytes of the input string are grouped into chunks
6228 of size BITS/8, and each group is converted to a number as with
6229 pack()/unpack() with big-endian formats C<n>/C<N> (and analogously
6230 for BITS==64). See L<"pack"> for details.
6232 If bits is 4 or less, the string is broken into bytes, then the bits
6233 of each byte are broken into 8/BITS groups. Bits of a byte are
6234 numbered in a little-endian-ish way, as in C<0x01>, C<0x02>,
6235 C<0x04>, C<0x08>, C<0x10>, C<0x20>, C<0x40>, C<0x80>. For example,
6236 breaking the single input byte C<chr(0x36)> into two groups gives a list
6237 C<(0x6, 0x3)>; breaking it into 4 groups gives C<(0x2, 0x1, 0x3, 0x0)>.
6239 C<vec> may also be assigned to, in which case parentheses are needed
6240 to give the expression the correct precedence as in
6242 vec($image, $max_x * $x + $y, 8) = 3;
6244 If the selected element is outside the string, the value 0 is returned.
6245 If an element off the end of the string is written to, Perl will first
6246 extend the string with sufficiently many zero bytes. It is an error
6247 to try to write off the beginning of the string (i.e. negative OFFSET).
6249 The string should not contain any character with the value > 255 (which
6250 can only happen if you're using UTF8 encoding). If it does, it will be
6251 treated as something which is not UTF8 encoded. When the C<vec> was
6252 assigned to, other parts of your program will also no longer consider the
6253 string to be UTF8 encoded. In other words, if you do have such characters
6254 in your string, vec() will operate on the actual byte string, and not the
6255 conceptual character string.
6257 Strings created with C<vec> can also be manipulated with the logical
6258 operators C<|>, C<&>, C<^>, and C<~>. These operators will assume a bit
6259 vector operation is desired when both operands are strings.
6260 See L<perlop/"Bitwise String Operators">.
6262 The following code will build up an ASCII string saying C<'PerlPerlPerl'>.
6263 The comments show the string after each step. Note that this code works
6264 in the same way on big-endian or little-endian machines.
6267 vec($foo, 0, 32) = 0x5065726C; # 'Perl'
6269 # $foo eq "Perl" eq "\x50\x65\x72\x6C", 32 bits
6270 print vec($foo, 0, 8); # prints 80 == 0x50 == ord('P')
6272 vec($foo, 2, 16) = 0x5065; # 'PerlPe'
6273 vec($foo, 3, 16) = 0x726C; # 'PerlPerl'
6274 vec($foo, 8, 8) = 0x50; # 'PerlPerlP'
6275 vec($foo, 9, 8) = 0x65; # 'PerlPerlPe'
6276 vec($foo, 20, 4) = 2; # 'PerlPerlPe' . "\x02"
6277 vec($foo, 21, 4) = 7; # 'PerlPerlPer'
6279 vec($foo, 45, 2) = 3; # 'PerlPerlPer' . "\x0c"
6280 vec($foo, 93, 1) = 1; # 'PerlPerlPer' . "\x2c"
6281 vec($foo, 94, 1) = 1; # 'PerlPerlPerl'
6284 To transform a bit vector into a string or list of 0's and 1's, use these:
6286 $bits = unpack("b*", $vector);
6287 @bits = split(//, unpack("b*", $vector));
6289 If you know the exact length in bits, it can be used in place of the C<*>.
6291 Here is an example to illustrate how the bits actually fall in place:
6297 unpack("V",$_) 01234567890123456789012345678901
6298 ------------------------------------------------------------------
6303 for ($shift=0; $shift < $width; ++$shift) {
6304 for ($off=0; $off < 32/$width; ++$off) {
6305 $str = pack("B*", "0"x32);
6306 $bits = (1<<$shift);
6307 vec($str, $off, $width) = $bits;
6308 $res = unpack("b*",$str);
6309 $val = unpack("V", $str);
6316 vec($_,@#,@#) = @<< == @######### @>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
6317 $off, $width, $bits, $val, $res
6321 Regardless of the machine architecture on which it is run, the above
6322 example should print the following table:
6325 unpack("V",$_) 01234567890123456789012345678901
6326 ------------------------------------------------------------------
6327 vec($_, 0, 1) = 1 == 1 10000000000000000000000000000000
6328 vec($_, 1, 1) = 1 == 2 01000000000000000000000000000000
6329 vec($_, 2, 1) = 1 == 4 00100000000000000000000000000000
6330 vec($_, 3, 1) = 1 == 8 00010000000000000000000000000000
6331 vec($_, 4, 1) = 1 == 16 00001000000000000000000000000000
6332 vec($_, 5, 1) = 1 == 32 00000100000000000000000000000000
6333 vec($_, 6, 1) = 1 == 64 00000010000000000000000000000000
6334 vec($_, 7, 1) = 1 == 128 00000001000000000000000000000000
6335 vec($_, 8, 1) = 1 == 256 00000000100000000000000000000000
6336 vec($_, 9, 1) = 1 == 512 00000000010000000000000000000000
6337 vec($_,10, 1) = 1 == 1024 00000000001000000000000000000000
6338 vec($_,11, 1) = 1 == 2048 00000000000100000000000000000000
6339 vec($_,12, 1) = 1 == 4096 00000000000010000000000000000000
6340 vec($_,13, 1) = 1 == 8192 00000000000001000000000000000000
6341 vec($_,14, 1) = 1 == 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000
6342 vec($_,15, 1) = 1 == 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000
6343 vec($_,16, 1) = 1 == 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000
6344 vec($_,17, 1) = 1 == 131072 00000000000000000100000000000000
6345 vec($_,18, 1) = 1 == 262144 00000000000000000010000000000000
6346 vec($_,19, 1) = 1 == 524288 00000000000000000001000000000000
6347 vec($_,20, 1) = 1 == 1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000
6348 vec($_,21, 1) = 1 == 2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000
6349 vec($_,22, 1) = 1 == 4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000
6350 vec($_,23, 1) = 1 == 8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000
6351 vec($_,24, 1) = 1 == 16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000
6352 vec($_,25, 1) = 1 == 33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000
6353 vec($_,26, 1) = 1 == 67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000
6354 vec($_,27, 1) = 1 == 134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000
6355 vec($_,28, 1) = 1 == 268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000
6356 vec($_,29, 1) = 1 == 536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100
6357 vec($_,30, 1) = 1 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010
6358 vec($_,31, 1) = 1 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001
6359 vec($_, 0, 2) = 1 == 1 10000000000000000000000000000000
6360 vec($_, 1, 2) = 1 == 4 00100000000000000000000000000000
6361 vec($_, 2, 2) = 1 == 16 00001000000000000000000000000000
6362 vec($_, 3, 2) = 1 == 64 00000010000000000000000000000000
6363 vec($_, 4, 2) = 1 == 256 00000000100000000000000000000000
6364 vec($_, 5, 2) = 1 == 1024 00000000001000000000000000000000
6365 vec($_, 6, 2) = 1 == 4096 00000000000010000000000000000000
6366 vec($_, 7, 2) = 1 == 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000
6367 vec($_, 8, 2) = 1 == 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000
6368 vec($_, 9, 2) = 1 == 262144 00000000000000000010000000000000
6369 vec($_,10, 2) = 1 == 1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000
6370 vec($_,11, 2) = 1 == 4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000
6371 vec($_,12, 2) = 1 == 16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000
6372 vec($_,13, 2) = 1 == 67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000
6373 vec($_,14, 2) = 1 == 268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000
6374 vec($_,15, 2) = 1 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010
6375 vec($_, 0, 2) = 2 == 2 01000000000000000000000000000000
6376 vec($_, 1, 2) = 2 == 8 00010000000000000000000000000000
6377 vec($_, 2, 2) = 2 == 32 00000100000000000000000000000000
6378 vec($_, 3, 2) = 2 == 128 00000001000000000000000000000000
6379 vec($_, 4, 2) = 2 == 512 00000000010000000000000000000000
6380 vec($_, 5, 2) = 2 == 2048 00000000000100000000000000000000
6381 vec($_, 6, 2) = 2 == 8192 00000000000001000000000000000000
6382 vec($_, 7, 2) = 2 == 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000
6383 vec($_, 8, 2) = 2 == 131072 00000000000000000100000000000000
6384 vec($_, 9, 2) = 2 == 524288 00000000000000000001000000000000
6385 vec($_,10, 2) = 2 == 2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000
6386 vec($_,11, 2) = 2 == 8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000
6387 vec($_,12, 2) = 2 == 33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000
6388 vec($_,13, 2) = 2 == 134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000
6389 vec($_,14, 2) = 2 == 536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100
6390 vec($_,15, 2) = 2 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001
6391 vec($_, 0, 4) = 1 == 1 10000000000000000000000000000000
6392 vec($_, 1, 4) = 1 == 16 00001000000000000000000000000000
6393 vec($_, 2, 4) = 1 == 256 00000000100000000000000000000000
6394 vec($_, 3, 4) = 1 == 4096 00000000000010000000000000000000
6395 vec($_, 4, 4) = 1 == 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000
6396 vec($_, 5, 4) = 1 == 1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000
6397 vec($_, 6, 4) = 1 == 16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000
6398 vec($_, 7, 4) = 1 == 268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000
6399 vec($_, 0, 4) = 2 == 2 01000000000000000000000000000000
6400 vec($_, 1, 4) = 2 == 32 00000100000000000000000000000000
6401 vec($_, 2, 4) = 2 == 512 00000000010000000000000000000000
6402 vec($_, 3, 4) = 2 == 8192 00000000000001000000000000000000
6403 vec($_, 4, 4) = 2 == 131072 00000000000000000100000000000000
6404 vec($_, 5, 4) = 2 == 2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000
6405 vec($_, 6, 4) = 2 == 33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000
6406 vec($_, 7, 4) = 2 == 536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100
6407 vec($_, 0, 4) = 4 == 4 00100000000000000000000000000000
6408 vec($_, 1, 4) = 4 == 64 00000010000000000000000000000000
6409 vec($_, 2, 4) = 4 == 1024 00000000001000000000000000000000
6410 vec($_, 3, 4) = 4 == 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000
6411 vec($_, 4, 4) = 4 == 262144 00000000000000000010000000000000
6412 vec($_, 5, 4) = 4 == 4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000
6413 vec($_, 6, 4) = 4 == 67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000
6414 vec($_, 7, 4) = 4 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010
6415 vec($_, 0, 4) = 8 == 8 00010000000000000000000000000000
6416 vec($_, 1, 4) = 8 == 128 00000001000000000000000000000000
6417 vec($_, 2, 4) = 8 == 2048 00000000000100000000000000000000
6418 vec($_, 3, 4) = 8 == 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000
6419 vec($_, 4, 4) = 8 == 524288 00000000000000000001000000000000
6420 vec($_, 5, 4) = 8 == 8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000
6421 vec($_, 6, 4) = 8 == 134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000
6422 vec($_, 7, 4) = 8 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001
6423 vec($_, 0, 8) = 1 == 1 10000000000000000000000000000000
6424 vec($_, 1, 8) = 1 == 256 00000000100000000000000000000000
6425 vec($_, 2, 8) = 1 == 65536 00000000000000001000000000000000
6426 vec($_, 3, 8) = 1 == 16777216 00000000000000000000000010000000
6427 vec($_, 0, 8) = 2 == 2 01000000000000000000000000000000
6428 vec($_, 1, 8) = 2 == 512 00000000010000000000000000000000
6429 vec($_, 2, 8) = 2 == 131072 00000000000000000100000000000000
6430 vec($_, 3, 8) = 2 == 33554432 00000000000000000000000001000000
6431 vec($_, 0, 8) = 4 == 4 00100000000000000000000000000000
6432 vec($_, 1, 8) = 4 == 1024 00000000001000000000000000000000
6433 vec($_, 2, 8) = 4 == 262144 00000000000000000010000000000000
6434 vec($_, 3, 8) = 4 == 67108864 00000000000000000000000000100000
6435 vec($_, 0, 8) = 8 == 8 00010000000000000000000000000000
6436 vec($_, 1, 8) = 8 == 2048 00000000000100000000000000000000
6437 vec($_, 2, 8) = 8 == 524288 00000000000000000001000000000000
6438 vec($_, 3, 8) = 8 == 134217728 00000000000000000000000000010000
6439 vec($_, 0, 8) = 16 == 16 00001000000000000000000000000000
6440 vec($_, 1, 8) = 16 == 4096 00000000000010000000000000000000
6441 vec($_, 2, 8) = 16 == 1048576 00000000000000000000100000000000
6442 vec($_, 3, 8) = 16 == 268435456 00000000000000000000000000001000
6443 vec($_, 0, 8) = 32 == 32 00000100000000000000000000000000
6444 vec($_, 1, 8) = 32 == 8192 00000000000001000000000000000000
6445 vec($_, 2, 8) = 32 == 2097152 00000000000000000000010000000000
6446 vec($_, 3, 8) = 32 == 536870912 00000000000000000000000000000100
6447 vec($_, 0, 8) = 64 == 64 00000010000000000000000000000000
6448 vec($_, 1, 8) = 64 == 16384 00000000000000100000000000000000
6449 vec($_, 2, 8) = 64 == 4194304 00000000000000000000001000000000
6450 vec($_, 3, 8) = 64 == 1073741824 00000000000000000000000000000010
6451 vec($_, 0, 8) = 128 == 128 00000001000000000000000000000000
6452 vec($_, 1, 8) = 128 == 32768 00000000000000010000000000000000
6453 vec($_, 2, 8) = 128 == 8388608 00000000000000000000000100000000
6454 vec($_, 3, 8) = 128 == 2147483648 00000000000000000000000000000001
6458 Behaves like the wait(2) system call on your system: it waits for a child
6459 process to terminate and returns the pid of the deceased process, or
6460 C<-1> if there are no child processes. The status is returned in C<$?>.
6461 Note that a return value of C<-1> could mean that child processes are
6462 being automatically reaped, as described in L<perlipc>.
6464 =item waitpid PID,FLAGS
6466 Waits for a particular child process to terminate and returns the pid of
6467 the deceased process, or C<-1> if there is no such child process. On some
6468 systems, a value of 0 indicates that there are processes still running.
6469 The status is returned in C<$?>. If you say
6471 use POSIX ":sys_wait_h";
6474 $kid = waitpid(-1, WNOHANG);
6477 then you can do a non-blocking wait for all pending zombie processes.
6478 Non-blocking wait is available on machines supporting either the
6479 waitpid(2) or wait4(2) system calls. However, waiting for a particular
6480 pid with FLAGS of C<0> is implemented everywhere. (Perl emulates the
6481 system call by remembering the status values of processes that have
6482 exited but have not been harvested by the Perl script yet.)
6484 Note that on some systems, a return value of C<-1> could mean that child
6485 processes are being automatically reaped. See L<perlipc> for details,
6486 and for other examples.
6490 Returns true if the context of the currently executing subroutine is
6491 looking for a list value. Returns false if the context is looking
6492 for a scalar. Returns the undefined value if the context is looking
6493 for no value (void context).
6495 return unless defined wantarray; # don't bother doing more
6496 my @a = complex_calculation();
6497 return wantarray ? @a : "@a";
6499 This function should have been named wantlist() instead.
6503 Produces a message on STDERR just like C<die>, but doesn't exit or throw
6506 If LIST is empty and C<$@> already contains a value (typically from a
6507 previous eval) that value is used after appending C<"\t...caught">
6508 to C<$@>. This is useful for staying almost, but not entirely similar to
6511 If C<$@> is empty then the string C<"Warning: Something's wrong"> is used.
6513 No message is printed if there is a C<$SIG{__WARN__}> handler
6514 installed. It is the handler's responsibility to deal with the message
6515 as it sees fit (like, for instance, converting it into a C<die>). Most
6516 handlers must therefore make arrangements to actually display the
6517 warnings that they are not prepared to deal with, by calling C<warn>
6518 again in the handler. Note that this is quite safe and will not
6519 produce an endless loop, since C<__WARN__> hooks are not called from
6522 You will find this behavior is slightly different from that of
6523 C<$SIG{__DIE__}> handlers (which don't suppress the error text, but can
6524 instead call C<die> again to change it).
6526 Using a C<__WARN__> handler provides a powerful way to silence all
6527 warnings (even the so-called mandatory ones). An example:
6529 # wipe out *all* compile-time warnings
6530 BEGIN { $SIG{'__WARN__'} = sub { warn $_[0] if $DOWARN } }
6532 my $foo = 20; # no warning about duplicate my $foo,
6533 # but hey, you asked for it!
6534 # no compile-time or run-time warnings before here
6537 # run-time warnings enabled after here
6538 warn "\$foo is alive and $foo!"; # does show up
6540 See L<perlvar> for details on setting C<%SIG> entries, and for more
6541 examples. See the Carp module for other kinds of warnings using its
6542 carp() and cluck() functions.
6544 =item write FILEHANDLE
6550 Writes a formatted record (possibly multi-line) to the specified FILEHANDLE,
6551 using the format associated with that file. By default the format for
6552 a file is the one having the same name as the filehandle, but the
6553 format for the current output channel (see the C<select> function) may be set
6554 explicitly by assigning the name of the format to the C<$~> variable.
6556 Top of form processing is handled automatically: if there is
6557 insufficient room on the current page for the formatted record, the
6558 page is advanced by writing a form feed, a special top-of-page format
6559 is used to format the new page header, and then the record is written.
6560 By default the top-of-page format is the name of the filehandle with
6561 "_TOP" appended, but it may be dynamically set to the format of your
6562 choice by assigning the name to the C<$^> variable while the filehandle is
6563 selected. The number of lines remaining on the current page is in
6564 variable C<$->, which can be set to C<0> to force a new page.
6566 If FILEHANDLE is unspecified, output goes to the current default output
6567 channel, which starts out as STDOUT but may be changed by the
6568 C<select> operator. If the FILEHANDLE is an EXPR, then the expression
6569 is evaluated and the resulting string is used to look up the name of
6570 the FILEHANDLE at run time. For more on formats, see L<perlform>.
6572 Note that write is I<not> the opposite of C<read>. Unfortunately.
6576 The transliteration operator. Same as C<tr///>. See L<perlop>.