3 perlfaq5 - Files and Formats
7 This section deals with I/O and the "f" issues: filehandles, flushing,
10 =head2 How do I flush/unbuffer an output filehandle? Why must I do this?
11 X<flush> X<buffer> X<unbuffer> X<autoflush>
13 (contributed by brian d foy)
15 You might like to read Mark Jason Dominus's "Suffering From Buffering"
16 at http://perl.plover.com/FAQs/Buffering.html .
18 Perl normally buffers output so it doesn't make a system call for every
19 bit of output. By saving up output, it makes fewer expensive system calls.
20 For instance, in this little bit of code, you want to print a dot to the
21 screen for every line you process to watch the progress of your program.
22 Instead of seeing a dot for every line, Perl buffers the output and you
23 have a long wait before you see a row of 50 dots all at once:
25 # long wait, then row of dots all at once
28 print "\n" unless ++$count % 50;
30 #... expensive line processing operations
33 To get around this, you have to unbuffer the output filehandle, in this
34 case, C<STDOUT>. You can set the special variable C<$|> to a true value
35 (mnemonic: making your filehandles "piping hot"):
39 # dot shown immediately
42 print "\n" unless ++$count % 50;
44 #... expensive line processing operations
47 The C<$|> is one of the per-filehandle special variables, so each
48 filehandle has its own copy of its value. If you want to merge
49 standard output and standard error for instance, you have to unbuffer
50 each (although STDERR might be unbuffered by default):
53 my $previous_default = select(STDOUT); # save previous default
54 $|++; # autoflush STDOUT
56 $|++; # autoflush STDERR, to be sure
57 select($previous_default); # restore previous default
60 # now should alternate . and +
66 print STDOUT "\n" unless ++$count % 25;
69 Besides the C<$|> special variable, you can use C<binmode> to give
70 your filehandle a C<:unix> layer, which is unbuffered:
72 binmode( STDOUT, ":unix" );
77 print "\n" unless ++$count % 50;
80 For more information on output layers, see the entries for C<binmode>
81 and C<open> in L<perlfunc>, and the C<PerlIO> module documentation.
83 If you are using C<IO::Handle> or one of its subclasses, you can
84 call the C<autoflush> method to change the settings of the
88 open my( $io_fh ), ">", "output.txt";
91 The C<IO::Handle> objects also have a C<flush> method. You can flush
92 the buffer any time you want without auto-buffering
96 =head2 How do I change, delete, or insert a line in a file, or append to the beginning of a file?
99 (contributed by brian d foy)
101 The basic idea of inserting, changing, or deleting a line from a text
102 file involves reading and printing the file to the point you want to
103 make the change, making the change, then reading and printing the rest
104 of the file. Perl doesn't provide random access to lines (especially
105 since the record input separator, C<$/>, is mutable), although modules
106 such as C<Tie::File> can fake it.
108 A Perl program to do these tasks takes the basic form of opening a
109 file, printing its lines, then closing the file:
111 open my $in, '<', $file or die "Can't read old file: $!";
112 open my $out, '>', "$file.new" or die "Can't write new file: $!";
121 Within that basic form, add the parts that you need to insert, change,
124 To prepend lines to the beginning, print those lines before you enter
125 the loop that prints the existing lines.
127 open my $in, '<', $file or die "Can't read old file: $!";
128 open my $out, '>', "$file.new" or die "Can't write new file: $!";
130 print $out "# Add this line to the top\n"; # <--- HERE'S THE MAGIC
139 To change existing lines, insert the code to modify the lines inside
140 the C<while> loop. In this case, the code finds all lowercased
141 versions of "perl" and uppercases them. The happens for every line, so
142 be sure that you're supposed to do that on every line!
144 open my $in, '<', $file or die "Can't read old file: $!";
145 open my $out, '>', "$file.new" or die "Can't write new file: $!";
147 print $out "# Add this line to the top\n";
157 To change only a particular line, the input line number, C<$.>, is
158 useful. First read and print the lines up to the one you want to
159 change. Next, read the single line you want to change, change it, and
160 print it. After that, read the rest of the lines and print those:
162 while( <$in> ) # print the lines before the change
165 last if $. == 4; # line number before change
169 $line =~ s/\b(perl)\b/Perl/g;
172 while( <$in> ) # print the rest of the lines
177 To skip lines, use the looping controls. The C<next> in this example
178 skips comment lines, and the C<last> stops all processing once it
179 encounters either C<__END__> or C<__DATA__>.
183 next if /^\s+#/; # skip comment lines
184 last if /^__(END|DATA)__$/; # stop at end of code marker
188 Do the same sort of thing to delete a particular line by using C<next>
189 to skip the lines you don't want to show up in the output. This
190 example skips every fifth line:
198 If, for some odd reason, you really want to see the whole file at once
199 rather than processing line-by-line, you can slurp it in (as long as
200 you can fit the whole thing in memory!):
202 open my $in, '<', $file or die "Can't read old file: $!"
203 open my $out, '>', "$file.new" or die "Can't write new file: $!";
205 my @lines = do { local $/; <$in> }; # slurp!
211 Modules such as C<File::Slurp> and C<Tie::File> can help with that
212 too. If you can, however, avoid reading the entire file at once. Perl
213 won't give that memory back to the operating system until the process
216 You can also use Perl one-liners to modify a file in-place. The
217 following changes all 'Fred' to 'Barney' in F<inFile.txt>, overwriting
218 the file with the new contents. With the C<-p> switch, Perl wraps a
219 C<while> loop around the code you specify with C<-e>, and C<-i> turns
220 on in-place editing. The current line is in C<$_>. With C<-p>, Perl
221 automatically prints the value of C<$_> at the end of the loop. See
222 L<perlrun> for more details.
224 perl -pi -e 's/Fred/Barney/' inFile.txt
226 To make a backup of C<inFile.txt>, give C<-i> a file extension to add:
228 perl -pi.bak -e 's/Fred/Barney/' inFile.txt
230 To change only the fifth line, you can add a test checking C<$.>, the
231 input line number, then only perform the operation when the test
234 perl -pi -e 's/Fred/Barney/ if $. == 5' inFile.txt
236 To add lines before a certain line, you can add a line (or lines!)
237 before Perl prints C<$_>:
239 perl -pi -e 'print "Put before third line\n" if $. == 3' inFile.txt
241 You can even add a line to the beginning of a file, since the current
242 line prints at the end of the loop:
244 perl -pi -e 'print "Put before first line\n" if $. == 1' inFile.txt
246 To insert a line after one already in the file, use the C<-n> switch.
247 It's just like C<-p> except that it doesn't print C<$_> at the end of
248 the loop, so you have to do that yourself. In this case, print C<$_>
249 first, then print the line that you want to add.
251 perl -ni -e 'print; print "Put after fifth line\n" if $. == 5' inFile.txt
253 To delete lines, only print the ones that you want.
255 perl -ni -e 'print unless /d/' inFile.txt
259 perl -pi -e 'next unless /d/' inFile.txt
261 =head2 How do I count the number of lines in a file?
262 X<file, counting lines> X<lines> X<line>
264 (contributed by brian d foy)
266 Conceptually, the easiest way to count the lines in a file is to
267 simply read them and count them:
270 while( <$fh> ) { $count++; }
272 You don't really have to count them yourself, though, since Perl
273 already does that with the C<$.> variable, which is the current line
274 number from the last filehandle read:
279 If you want to use C<$.>, you can reduce it to a simple one-liner,
282 % perl -lne '} print $.; {' file
284 % perl -lne 'END { print $. }' file
286 Those can be rather inefficient though. If they aren't fast enough for
287 you, you might just read chunks of data and count the number of
291 open my($fh), '<:raw', $filename or die "Can't open $filename: $!";
292 while( sysread $fh, $buffer, 4096 ) {
293 $lines += ( $buffer =~ tr/\n// );
297 However, that doesn't work if the line ending isn't a newline. You
298 might change that C<tr///> to a C<s///> so you can count the number of
299 times the input record separator, C<$/>, shows up:
302 open my($fh), '<:raw', $filename or die "Can't open $filename: $!";
303 while( sysread $fh, $buffer, 4096 ) {
304 $lines += ( $buffer =~ s|$/||g; );
308 If you don't mind shelling out, the C<wc> command is usually the
309 fastest, even with the extra interprocess overhead. Ensure that you
310 have an untainted filename though:
317 if( $filename =~ /^([0-9a-z_.]+)\z/ ) {
318 $lines = `/usr/bin/wc -l $1`
322 =head2 How do I delete the last N lines from a file?
325 (contributed by brian d foy)
327 The easiest conceptual solution is to count the lines in the
328 file then start at the beginning and print the number of lines
329 (minus the last N) to a new file.
331 Most often, the real question is how you can delete the last N lines
332 without making more than one pass over the file, or how to do it
333 without a lot of copying. The easy concept is the hard reality when
334 you might have millions of lines in your file.
336 One trick is to use C<File::ReadBackwards>, which starts at the end of
337 the file. That module provides an object that wraps the real filehandle
338 to make it easy for you to move around the file. Once you get to the
339 spot you need, you can get the actual filehandle and work with it as
340 normal. In this case, you get the file position at the end of the last
341 line you want to keep and truncate the file to that point:
343 use File::ReadBackwards;
345 my $filename = 'test.txt';
346 my $Lines_to_truncate = 2;
348 my $bw = File::ReadBackwards->new( $filename )
349 or die "Could not read backwards in [$filename]: $!";
351 my $lines_from_end = 0;
352 until( $bw->eof or $lines_from_end == $Lines_to_truncate )
354 print "Got: ", $bw->readline;
358 truncate( $filename, $bw->tell );
360 The C<File::ReadBackwards> module also has the advantage of setting
361 the input record separator to a regular expression.
363 You can also use the C<Tie::File> module which lets you access
364 the lines through a tied array. You can use normal array operations
365 to modify your file, including setting the last index and using
368 =head2 How can I use Perl's C<-i> option from within a program?
371 C<-i> sets the value of Perl's C<$^I> variable, which in turn affects
372 the behavior of C<< <> >>; see L<perlrun> for more details. By
373 modifying the appropriate variables directly, you can get the same
374 behavior within a larger program. For example:
378 local($^I, @ARGV) = ('.orig', glob("*.c"));
381 print "This line should appear at the top of each file\n";
383 s/\b(p)earl\b/${1}erl/i; # Correct typos, preserving case
385 close ARGV if eof; # Reset $.
388 # $^I and @ARGV return to their old values here
390 This block modifies all the C<.c> files in the current directory,
391 leaving a backup of the original data from each file in a new
394 =head2 How can I copy a file?
395 X<copy> X<file, copy> X<File::Copy>
397 (contributed by brian d foy)
399 Use the C<File::Copy> module. It comes with Perl and can do a
400 true copy across file systems, and it does its magic in
405 copy( $original, $new_copy ) or die "Copy failed: $!";
407 If you can't use C<File::Copy>, you'll have to do the work yourself:
408 open the original file, open the destination file, then print
409 to the destination file as you read the original. You also have to
410 remember to copy the permissions, owner, and group to the new file.
412 =head2 How do I make a temporary file name?
415 If you don't need to know the name of the file, you can use C<open()>
416 with C<undef> in place of the file name. In Perl 5.8 or later, the
417 C<open()> function creates an anonymous temporary file:
419 open my $tmp, '+>', undef or die $!;
421 Otherwise, you can use the File::Temp module.
423 use File::Temp qw/ tempfile tempdir /;
425 my $dir = tempdir( CLEANUP => 1 );
426 ($fh, $filename) = tempfile( DIR => $dir );
428 # or if you don't need to know the filename
430 my $fh = tempfile( DIR => $dir );
432 The File::Temp has been a standard module since Perl 5.6.1. If you
433 don't have a modern enough Perl installed, use the C<new_tmpfile>
434 class method from the IO::File module to get a filehandle opened for
435 reading and writing. Use it if you don't need to know the file's name:
438 my $fh = IO::File->new_tmpfile()
439 or die "Unable to make new temporary file: $!";
441 If you're committed to creating a temporary file by hand, use the
442 process ID and/or the current time-value. If you need to have many
443 temporary files in one process, use a counter:
447 my $temp_dir = -d '/tmp' ? '/tmp' : $ENV{TMPDIR} || $ENV{TEMP};
448 my $base_name = sprintf "%s/%d-%d-0000", $temp_dir, $$, time;
453 until( defined(fileno(FH)) || $count++ > 100 ) {
454 $base_name =~ s/-(\d+)$/"-" . (1 + $1)/e;
455 # O_EXCL is required for security reasons.
456 sysopen my($fh), $base_name, O_WRONLY|O_EXCL|O_CREAT;
459 if( defined fileno($fh) ) {
460 return ($fh, $base_name);
469 =head2 How can I manipulate fixed-record-length files?
470 X<fixed-length> X<file, fixed-length records>
472 The most efficient way is using L<pack()|perlfunc/"pack"> and
473 L<unpack()|perlfunc/"unpack">. This is faster than using
474 L<substr()|perlfunc/"substr"> when taking many, many strings. It is
475 slower for just a few.
477 Here is a sample chunk of code to break up and put back together again
478 some fixed-format input lines, in this case from the output of a normal,
482 # 15158 p5 T 0:00 perl /home/tchrist/scripts/now-what
483 my $PS_T = 'A6 A4 A7 A5 A*';
484 open my $ps, '-|', 'ps';
486 my @fields = qw( pid tt stat time command );
489 @process{@fields} = unpack($PS_T, $_);
490 for my $field ( @fields ) {
491 print "$field: <$process{$field}>\n";
493 print 'line=', pack($PS_T, @process{@fields} ), "\n";
496 We've used a hash slice in order to easily handle the fields of each row.
497 Storing the keys in an array means it's easy to operate on them as a
498 group or loop over them with for. It also avoids polluting the program
499 with global variables and using symbolic references.
501 =head2 How can I make a filehandle local to a subroutine? How do I pass filehandles between subroutines? How do I make an array of filehandles?
502 X<filehandle, local> X<filehandle, passing> X<filehandle, reference>
504 As of perl5.6, open() autovivifies file and directory handles
505 as references if you pass it an uninitialized scalar variable.
506 You can then pass these references just like any other scalar,
507 and use them in the place of named handles.
509 open my $fh, $file_name;
511 open local $fh, $file_name;
513 print $fh "Hello World!\n";
517 If you like, you can store these filehandles in an array or a hash.
518 If you access them directly, they aren't simple scalars and you
519 need to give C<print> a little help by placing the filehandle
520 reference in braces. Perl can only figure it out on its own when
521 the filehandle reference is a simple scalar.
523 my @fhs = ( $fh1, $fh2, $fh3 );
525 for( $i = 0; $i <= $#fhs; $i++ ) {
526 print {$fhs[$i]} "just another Perl answer, \n";
529 Before perl5.6, you had to deal with various typeglob idioms
530 which you may see in older code.
532 open FILE, "> $filename";
533 process_typeglob( *FILE );
534 process_reference( \*FILE );
536 sub process_typeglob { local *FH = shift; print FH "Typeglob!" }
537 sub process_reference { local $fh = shift; print $fh "Reference!" }
539 If you want to create many anonymous handles, you should
540 check out the Symbol or IO::Handle modules.
542 =head2 How can I use a filehandle indirectly?
543 X<filehandle, indirect>
545 An indirect filehandle is using something other than a symbol
546 in a place that a filehandle is expected. Here are ways
547 to get indirect filehandles:
549 $fh = SOME_FH; # bareword is strict-subs hostile
550 $fh = "SOME_FH"; # strict-refs hostile; same package only
551 $fh = *SOME_FH; # typeglob
552 $fh = \*SOME_FH; # ref to typeglob (bless-able)
553 $fh = *SOME_FH{IO}; # blessed IO::Handle from *SOME_FH typeglob
555 Or, you can use the C<new> method from one of the IO::* modules to
556 create an anonymous filehandle, store that in a scalar variable,
557 and use it as though it were a normal filehandle.
559 use IO::Handle; # 5.004 or higher
560 my $fh = IO::Handle->new();
562 Then use any of those as you would a normal filehandle. Anywhere that
563 Perl is expecting a filehandle, an indirect filehandle may be used
564 instead. An indirect filehandle is just a scalar variable that contains
565 a filehandle. Functions like C<print>, C<open>, C<seek>, or
566 the C<< <FH> >> diamond operator will accept either a named filehandle
567 or a scalar variable containing one:
569 ($ifh, $ofh, $efh) = (*STDIN, *STDOUT, *STDERR);
570 print $ofh "Type it: ";
572 print $efh "What was that: $got";
574 If you're passing a filehandle to a function, you can write
575 the function in two ways:
579 print $fh "Sending to indirect filehandle\n";
582 Or it can localize a typeglob and use the filehandle directly:
586 print FH "Sending to localized filehandle\n";
589 Both styles work with either objects or typeglobs of real filehandles.
590 (They might also work with strings under some circumstances, but this
596 In the examples above, we assigned the filehandle to a scalar variable
597 before using it. That is because only simple scalar variables, not
598 expressions or subscripts of hashes or arrays, can be used with
599 built-ins like C<print>, C<printf>, or the diamond operator. Using
600 something other than a simple scalar variable as a filehandle is
601 illegal and won't even compile:
603 my @fd = (*STDIN, *STDOUT, *STDERR);
604 print $fd[1] "Type it: "; # WRONG
605 my $got = <$fd[0]> # WRONG
606 print $fd[2] "What was that: $got"; # WRONG
608 With C<print> and C<printf>, you get around this by using a block and
609 an expression where you would place the filehandle:
611 print { $fd[1] } "funny stuff\n";
612 printf { $fd[1] } "Pity the poor %x.\n", 3_735_928_559;
613 # Pity the poor deadbeef.
615 That block is a proper block like any other, so you can put more
616 complicated code there. This sends the message out to one of two places:
618 my $ok = -x "/bin/cat";
619 print { $ok ? $fd[1] : $fd[2] } "cat stat $ok\n";
620 print { $fd[ 1+ ($ok || 0) ] } "cat stat $ok\n";
622 This approach of treating C<print> and C<printf> like object methods
623 calls doesn't work for the diamond operator. That's because it's a
624 real operator, not just a function with a comma-less argument. Assuming
625 you've been storing typeglobs in your structure as we did above, you
626 can use the built-in function named C<readline> to read a record just
627 as C<< <> >> does. Given the initialization shown above for @fd, this
628 would work, but only because readline() requires a typeglob. It doesn't
629 work with objects or strings, which might be a bug we haven't fixed yet.
631 $got = readline($fd[0]);
633 Let it be noted that the flakiness of indirect filehandles is not
634 related to whether they're strings, typeglobs, objects, or anything else.
635 It's the syntax of the fundamental operators. Playing the object
636 game doesn't help you at all here.
638 =head2 How can I set up a footer format to be used with write()?
641 There's no builtin way to do this, but L<perlform> has a couple of
642 techniques to make it possible for the intrepid hacker.
644 =head2 How can I write() into a string?
645 X<write, into a string>
647 See L<perlform/"Accessing Formatting Internals"> for an C<swrite()> function.
649 =head2 How can I open a filehandle to a string?
650 X<string> X<open> X<IO::String> X<filehandle>
652 (contributed by Peter J. Holzer, hjp-usenet2@hjp.at)
654 Since Perl 5.8.0 a file handle referring to a string can be created by
655 calling open with a reference to that string instead of the filename.
656 This file handle can then be used to read from or write to the string:
658 open(my $fh, '>', \$string) or die "Could not open string for writing";
660 print $fh "bar\n"; # $string now contains "foo\nbar\n"
662 open(my $fh, '<', \$string) or die "Could not open string for reading";
663 my $x = <$fh>; # $x now contains "foo\n"
665 With older versions of Perl, the C<IO::String> module provides similar
668 =head2 How can I output my numbers with commas added?
671 (contributed by brian d foy and Benjamin Goldberg)
673 You can use L<Number::Format> to separate places in a number.
674 It handles locale information for those of you who want to insert
675 full stops instead (or anything else that they want to use,
678 This subroutine will add commas to your number:
682 1 while s/^([-+]?\d+)(\d{3})/$1,$2/;
686 This regex from Benjamin Goldberg will add commas to numbers:
688 s/(^[-+]?\d+?(?=(?>(?:\d{3})+)(?!\d))|\G\d{3}(?=\d))/$1,/g;
690 It is easier to see with comments:
693 ^[-+]? # beginning of number.
694 \d+? # first digits before first comma
695 (?= # followed by, (but not included in the match) :
696 (?>(?:\d{3})+) # some positive multiple of three digits.
697 (?!\d) # an *exact* multiple, not x * 3 + 1 or whatever.
700 \G\d{3} # after the last group, get three digits
701 (?=\d) # but they have to have more digits after them.
704 =head2 How can I translate tildes (~) in a filename?
705 X<tilde> X<tilde expansion>
707 Use the E<lt>E<gt> (C<glob()>) operator, documented in L<perlfunc>.
708 Versions of Perl older than 5.6 require that you have a shell
709 installed that groks tildes. Later versions of Perl have this feature
710 built in. The C<File::KGlob> module (available from CPAN) gives more
711 portable glob functionality.
713 Within Perl, you may use this directly:
716 ^ ~ # find a leading tilde
718 [^/] # a non-slash character
719 * # repeated 0 or more times (0 means me)
724 : ( $ENV{HOME} || $ENV{LOGDIR} )
727 =head2 How come when I open a file read-write it wipes it out?
728 X<clobber> X<read-write> X<clobbering> X<truncate> X<truncating>
730 Because you're using something like this, which truncates the file and
731 I<then> gives you read-write access:
733 open my $fh, '+>', '/path/name'; # WRONG (almost always)
735 Whoops. You should instead use this, which will fail if the file
738 open my $fh, '+<', '/path/name'; # open for update
740 Using ">" always clobbers or creates. Using "<" never does
741 either. The "+" doesn't change this.
743 Here are examples of many kinds of file opens. Those using sysopen()
748 To open file for reading:
750 open my $fh, '<', $path or die $!;
751 sysopen my $fh, $path, O_RDONLY or die $!;
753 To open file for writing, create new file if needed or else truncate old file:
755 open my $fh, '>', $path or die $!;
756 sysopen my $fh, $path, O_WRONLY|O_TRUNC|O_CREAT or die $!;
757 sysopen my $fh, $path, O_WRONLY|O_TRUNC|O_CREAT, 0666 or die $!;
759 To open file for writing, create new file, file must not exist:
761 sysopen my $fh, $path, O_WRONLY|O_EXCL|O_CREAT or die $!;
762 sysopen my $fh, $path, O_WRONLY|O_EXCL|O_CREAT, 0666 or die $!;
764 To open file for appending, create if necessary:
766 open my $fh, '>>' $path or die $!;
767 sysopen my $fh, $path, O_WRONLY|O_APPEND|O_CREAT or die $!;
768 sysopen my $fh, $path, O_WRONLY|O_APPEND|O_CREAT, 0666 or die $!;
770 To open file for appending, file must exist:
772 sysopen my $fh, $path, O_WRONLY|O_APPEND or die $!;
774 To open file for update, file must exist:
776 open my $fh, '+<', $path or die $!;
777 sysopen my $fh, $path, O_RDWR or die $!;
779 To open file for update, create file if necessary:
781 sysopen my $fh, $path, O_RDWR|O_CREAT or die $!;
782 sysopen my $fh, $path, O_RDWR|O_CREAT, 0666 or die $!;
784 To open file for update, file must not exist:
786 sysopen my $fh, $path, O_RDWR|O_EXCL|O_CREAT or die $!;
787 sysopen my $fh, $path, O_RDWR|O_EXCL|O_CREAT, 0666 or die $!;
789 To open a file without blocking, creating if necessary:
791 sysopen my $fh, '/foo/somefile', O_WRONLY|O_NDELAY|O_CREAT
792 or die "can't open /foo/somefile: $!":
794 Be warned that neither creation nor deletion of files is guaranteed to
795 be an atomic operation over NFS. That is, two processes might both
796 successfully create or unlink the same file! Therefore O_EXCL
797 isn't as exclusive as you might wish.
799 See also the new L<perlopentut>.
801 =head2 Why do I sometimes get an "Argument list too long" when I use E<lt>*E<gt>?
802 X<argument list too long>
804 The C<< <> >> operator performs a globbing operation (see above).
805 In Perl versions earlier than v5.6.0, the internal glob() operator forks
806 csh(1) to do the actual glob expansion, but
807 csh can't handle more than 127 items and so gives the error message
808 C<Argument list too long>. People who installed tcsh as csh won't
809 have this problem, but their users may be surprised by it.
811 To get around this, either upgrade to Perl v5.6.0 or later, do the glob
812 yourself with readdir() and patterns, or use a module like File::KGlob,
813 one that doesn't use the shell to do globbing.
815 =head2 Is there a leak/bug in glob()?
818 (contributed by brian d foy)
820 Starting with Perl 5.6.0, C<glob> is implemented internally rather
821 than relying on an external resource. As such, memory issues with
822 C<glob> aren't a problem in modern perls.
824 =head2 How can I open a file with a leading ">" or trailing blanks?
825 X<filename, special characters>
827 (contributed by Brian McCauley)
829 The special two argument form of Perl's open() function ignores
830 trailing blanks in filenames and infers the mode from certain leading
831 characters (or a trailing "|"). In older versions of Perl this was the
832 only version of open() and so it is prevalent in old code and books.
834 Unless you have a particular reason to use the two argument form you
835 should use the three argument form of open() which does not treat any
836 characters in the filename as special.
838 open my $fh, "<", " file "; # filename is " file "
839 open my $fh, ">", ">file"; # filename is ">file"
841 =head2 How can I reliably rename a file?
842 X<rename> X<mv> X<move> X<file, rename>
844 If your operating system supports a proper mv(1) utility or its
845 functional equivalent, this works:
847 rename($old, $new) or system("mv", $old, $new);
849 It may be more portable to use the C<File::Copy> module instead.
850 You just copy to the new file to the new name (checking return
851 values), then delete the old one. This isn't really the same
852 semantically as a C<rename()>, which preserves meta-information like
853 permissions, timestamps, inode info, etc.
855 =head2 How can I lock a file?
856 X<lock> X<file, lock> X<flock>
858 Perl's builtin flock() function (see L<perlfunc> for details) will call
859 flock(2) if that exists, fcntl(2) if it doesn't (on perl version 5.004 and
860 later), and lockf(3) if neither of the two previous system calls exists.
861 On some systems, it may even use a different form of native locking.
862 Here are some gotchas with Perl's flock():
868 Produces a fatal error if none of the three system calls (or their
869 close equivalent) exists.
873 lockf(3) does not provide shared locking, and requires that the
874 filehandle be open for writing (or appending, or read/writing).
878 Some versions of flock() can't lock files over a network (e.g. on NFS file
879 systems), so you'd need to force the use of fcntl(2) when you build Perl.
880 But even this is dubious at best. See the flock entry of L<perlfunc>
881 and the F<INSTALL> file in the source distribution for information on
882 building Perl to do this.
884 Two potentially non-obvious but traditional flock semantics are that
885 it waits indefinitely until the lock is granted, and that its locks are
886 I<merely advisory>. Such discretionary locks are more flexible, but
887 offer fewer guarantees. This means that files locked with flock() may
888 be modified by programs that do not also use flock(). Cars that stop
889 for red lights get on well with each other, but not with cars that don't
890 stop for red lights. See the perlport manpage, your port's specific
891 documentation, or your system-specific local manpages for details. It's
892 best to assume traditional behavior if you're writing portable programs.
893 (If you're not, you should as always feel perfectly free to write
894 for your own system's idiosyncrasies (sometimes called "features").
895 Slavish adherence to portability concerns shouldn't get in the way of
896 your getting your job done.)
898 For more information on file locking, see also
899 L<perlopentut/"File Locking"> if you have it (new for 5.6).
903 =head2 Why can't I just open(FH, "E<gt>file.lock")?
904 X<lock, lockfile race condition>
906 A common bit of code B<NOT TO USE> is this:
908 sleep(3) while -e 'file.lock'; # PLEASE DO NOT USE
909 open my $lock, '>', 'file.lock'; # THIS BROKEN CODE
911 This is a classic race condition: you take two steps to do something
912 which must be done in one. That's why computer hardware provides an
913 atomic test-and-set instruction. In theory, this "ought" to work:
915 sysopen my $fh, "file.lock", O_WRONLY|O_EXCL|O_CREAT
916 or die "can't open file.lock: $!";
918 except that lamentably, file creation (and deletion) is not atomic
919 over NFS, so this won't work (at least, not every time) over the net.
920 Various schemes involving link() have been suggested, but
921 these tend to involve busy-wait, which is also less than desirable.
923 =head2 I still don't get locking. I just want to increment the number in the file. How can I do this?
924 X<counter> X<file, counter>
926 Didn't anyone ever tell you web-page hit counters were useless?
927 They don't count number of hits, they're a waste of time, and they serve
928 only to stroke the writer's vanity. It's better to pick a random number;
929 they're more realistic.
931 Anyway, this is what you can do if you can't help yourself.
933 use Fcntl qw(:DEFAULT :flock);
934 sysopen my $fh, "numfile", O_RDWR|O_CREAT or die "can't open numfile: $!";
935 flock $fh, LOCK_EX or die "can't flock numfile: $!";
936 my $num = <$fh> || 0;
937 seek $fh, 0, 0 or die "can't rewind numfile: $!";
938 truncate $fh, 0 or die "can't truncate numfile: $!";
939 (print $fh $num+1, "\n") or die "can't write numfile: $!";
940 close $fh or die "can't close numfile: $!";
942 Here's a much better web-page hit counter:
944 $hits = int( (time() - 850_000_000) / rand(1_000) );
946 If the count doesn't impress your friends, then the code might. :-)
948 =head2 All I want to do is append a small amount of text to the end of a file. Do I still have to use locking?
949 X<append> X<file, append>
951 If you are on a system that correctly implements C<flock> and you use
952 the example appending code from "perldoc -f flock" everything will be
953 OK even if the OS you are on doesn't implement append mode correctly
954 (if such a system exists.) So if you are happy to restrict yourself to
955 OSs that implement C<flock> (and that's not really much of a
956 restriction) then that is what you should do.
958 If you know you are only going to use a system that does correctly
959 implement appending (i.e. not Win32) then you can omit the C<seek>
960 from the code in the previous answer.
962 If you know you are only writing code to run on an OS and filesystem
963 that does implement append mode correctly (a local filesystem on a
964 modern Unix for example), and you keep the file in block-buffered mode
965 and you write less than one buffer-full of output between each manual
966 flushing of the buffer then each bufferload is almost guaranteed to be
967 written to the end of the file in one chunk without getting
968 intermingled with anyone else's output. You can also use the
969 C<syswrite> function which is simply a wrapper around your system's
970 C<write(2)> system call.
972 There is still a small theoretical chance that a signal will interrupt
973 the system level C<write()> operation before completion. There is also
974 a possibility that some STDIO implementations may call multiple system
975 level C<write()>s even if the buffer was empty to start. There may be
976 some systems where this probability is reduced to zero, and this is
977 not a concern when using C<:perlio> instead of your system's STDIO.
979 =head2 How do I randomly update a binary file?
980 X<file, binary patch>
982 If you're just trying to patch a binary, in many cases something as
983 simple as this works:
985 perl -i -pe 's{window manager}{window mangler}g' /usr/bin/emacs
987 However, if you have fixed sized records, then you might do something more
990 $RECSIZE = 220; # size of record, in bytes
991 $recno = 37; # which record to update
992 open my $fh, '+<', 'somewhere' or die "can't update somewhere: $!";
993 seek $fh, $recno * $RECSIZE, 0;
994 read $fh, $record, $RECSIZE == $RECSIZE or die "can't read record $recno: $!";
996 seek $fh, -$RECSIZE, 1;
1000 Locking and error checking are left as an exercise for the reader.
1001 Don't forget them or you'll be quite sorry.
1003 =head2 How do I get a file's timestamp in perl?
1004 X<timestamp> X<file, timestamp>
1006 If you want to retrieve the time at which the file was last read,
1007 written, or had its meta-data (owner, etc) changed, you use the B<-A>,
1008 B<-M>, or B<-C> file test operations as documented in L<perlfunc>.
1009 These retrieve the age of the file (measured against the start-time of
1010 your program) in days as a floating point number. Some platforms may
1011 not have all of these times. See L<perlport> for details. To retrieve
1012 the "raw" time in seconds since the epoch, you would call the stat
1013 function, then use C<localtime()>, C<gmtime()>, or
1014 C<POSIX::strftime()> to convert this into human-readable form.
1018 my $write_secs = (stat($file))[9];
1019 printf "file %s updated at %s\n", $file,
1020 scalar localtime($write_secs);
1022 If you prefer something more legible, use the File::stat module
1023 (part of the standard distribution in version 5.004 and later):
1025 # error checking left as an exercise for reader.
1027 use Time::localtime;
1028 my $date_string = ctime(stat($file)->mtime);
1029 print "file $file updated at $date_string\n";
1031 The POSIX::strftime() approach has the benefit of being,
1032 in theory, independent of the current locale. See L<perllocale>
1035 =head2 How do I set a file's timestamp in perl?
1036 X<timestamp> X<file, timestamp>
1038 You use the utime() function documented in L<perlfunc/utime>.
1039 By way of example, here's a little program that copies the
1040 read and write times from its first argument to all the rest
1044 die "usage: cptimes timestamp_file other_files ...\n";
1046 my $timestamp = shift;
1047 my($atime, $mtime) = (stat($timestamp))[8,9];
1048 utime $atime, $mtime, @ARGV;
1050 Error checking is, as usual, left as an exercise for the reader.
1052 The perldoc for utime also has an example that has the same
1053 effect as touch(1) on files that I<already exist>.
1055 Certain file systems have a limited ability to store the times
1056 on a file at the expected level of precision. For example, the
1057 FAT and HPFS filesystem are unable to create dates on files with
1058 a finer granularity than two seconds. This is a limitation of
1059 the filesystems, not of utime().
1061 =head2 How do I print to more than one file at once?
1062 X<print, to multiple files>
1064 To connect one filehandle to several output filehandles,
1065 you can use the IO::Tee or Tie::FileHandle::Multiplex modules.
1067 If you only have to do this once, you can print individually
1070 for my $fh (FH1, FH2, FH3) { print $fh "whatever\n" }
1072 =head2 How can I read in an entire file all at once?
1073 X<slurp> X<file, slurping>
1075 Are you sure you want to read the entire file and store it in memory?
1076 If you mmap the file, you can virtually load the entire file into a
1077 string without actually storing it in memory:
1079 use File::Map qw(map_file);
1081 map_file my $string, $filename;
1083 Once mapped, you can treat C<$string> as you would any other string.
1084 Since you don't actually load the data, mmap-ing is very fast and does
1085 not increase your memory footprint.
1087 If you really want to load the entire file, you can use the
1088 C<File::Slurp> module to do it in one step.
1092 my $all_of_it = read_file($filename); # entire file in scalar
1093 my @all_lines = read_file($filename); # one line per element
1095 The customary Perl approach for processing all the lines in a file is to
1096 do so one line at a time:
1098 open my $input, '<', $file or die "can't open $file: $!";
1101 # do something with $_
1103 close $input or die "can't close $file: $!";
1105 This is tremendously more efficient than reading the entire file into
1106 memory as an array of lines and then processing it one element at a time,
1107 which is often--if not almost always--the wrong approach. Whenever
1108 you see someone do this:
1110 my @lines = <INPUT>;
1112 You should think long and hard about why you need everything loaded at
1113 once. It's just not a scalable solution. You might also find it more
1114 fun to use the standard Tie::File module, or the DB_File module's
1115 $DB_RECNO bindings, which allow you to tie an array to a file so that
1116 accessing an element the array actually accesses the corresponding
1119 You can read the entire filehandle contents into a scalar.
1123 open my $fh, '<', $file or die "can't open $file: $!";
1127 That temporarily undefs your record separator, and will automatically
1128 close the file at block exit. If the file is already open, just use this:
1130 $var = do { local $/; <$fh> };
1132 For ordinary files you can also use the read function.
1134 read( $fh, $var, -s $fh );
1136 The third argument tests the byte size of the data on the INPUT filehandle
1137 and reads that many bytes into the buffer $var.
1139 =head2 How can I read in a file by paragraphs?
1140 X<file, reading by paragraphs>
1142 Use the C<$/> variable (see L<perlvar> for details). You can either
1143 set it to C<""> to eliminate empty paragraphs (C<"abc\n\n\n\ndef">,
1144 for instance, gets treated as two paragraphs and not three), or
1145 C<"\n\n"> to accept empty paragraphs.
1147 Note that a blank line must have no blanks in it. Thus
1148 S<C<"fred\n \nstuff\n\n">> is one paragraph, but C<"fred\n\nstuff\n\n"> is two.
1150 =head2 How can I read a single character from a file? From the keyboard?
1151 X<getc> X<file, reading one character at a time>
1153 You can use the builtin C<getc()> function for most filehandles, but
1154 it won't (easily) work on a terminal device. For STDIN, either use
1155 the Term::ReadKey module from CPAN or use the sample code in
1158 If your system supports the portable operating system programming
1159 interface (POSIX), you can use the following code, which you'll note
1160 turns off echo processing as well.
1173 use POSIX qw(:termios_h);
1175 my ($term, $oterm, $echo, $noecho, $fd_stdin);
1177 my $fd_stdin = fileno(STDIN);
1179 $term = POSIX::Termios->new();
1180 $term->getattr($fd_stdin);
1181 $oterm = $term->getlflag();
1183 $echo = ECHO | ECHOK | ICANON;
1184 $noecho = $oterm & ~$echo;
1187 $term->setlflag($noecho);
1188 $term->setcc(VTIME, 1);
1189 $term->setattr($fd_stdin, TCSANOW);
1193 $term->setlflag($oterm);
1194 $term->setcc(VTIME, 0);
1195 $term->setattr($fd_stdin, TCSANOW);
1201 sysread(STDIN, $key, 1);
1210 The Term::ReadKey module from CPAN may be easier to use. Recent versions
1211 include also support for non-portable systems as well.
1214 open my $tty, '<', '/dev/tty';
1215 print "Gimme a char: ";
1217 my $key = ReadKey 0, $tty;
1219 printf "\nYou said %s, char number %03d\n",
1222 =head2 How can I tell whether there's a character waiting on a filehandle?
1224 The very first thing you should do is look into getting the Term::ReadKey
1225 extension from CPAN. As we mentioned earlier, it now even has limited
1226 support for non-portable (read: not open systems, closed, proprietary,
1227 not POSIX, not Unix, etc.) systems.
1229 You should also check out the Frequently Asked Questions list in
1230 comp.unix.* for things like this: the answer is essentially the same.
1231 It's very system dependent. Here's one solution that works on BSD
1236 vec($rin, fileno(STDIN), 1) = 1;
1237 return $nfd = select($rin,undef,undef,0);
1240 If you want to find out how many characters are waiting, there's
1241 also the FIONREAD ioctl call to be looked at. The I<h2ph> tool that
1242 comes with Perl tries to convert C include files to Perl code, which
1243 can be C<require>d. FIONREAD ends up defined as a function in the
1244 I<sys/ioctl.ph> file:
1246 require 'sys/ioctl.ph';
1248 $size = pack("L", 0);
1249 ioctl(FH, FIONREAD(), $size) or die "Couldn't call ioctl: $!\n";
1250 $size = unpack("L", $size);
1252 If I<h2ph> wasn't installed or doesn't work for you, you can
1253 I<grep> the include files by hand:
1255 % grep FIONREAD /usr/include/*/*
1256 /usr/include/asm/ioctls.h:#define FIONREAD 0x541B
1258 Or write a small C program using the editor of champions:
1261 #include <sys/ioctl.h>
1263 printf("%#08x\n", FIONREAD);
1266 % cc -o fionread fionread.c
1270 And then hard code it, leaving porting as an exercise to your successor.
1272 $FIONREAD = 0x4004667f; # XXX: opsys dependent
1274 $size = pack("L", 0);
1275 ioctl(FH, $FIONREAD, $size) or die "Couldn't call ioctl: $!\n";
1276 $size = unpack("L", $size);
1278 FIONREAD requires a filehandle connected to a stream, meaning that sockets,
1279 pipes, and tty devices work, but I<not> files.
1281 =head2 How do I do a C<tail -f> in perl?
1282 X<tail> X<IO::Handle> X<File::Tail> X<clearerr>
1288 The statement C<seek(GWFILE, 0, 1)> doesn't change the current position,
1289 but it does clear the end-of-file condition on the handle, so that the
1290 next C<< <GWFILE> >> makes Perl try again to read something.
1292 If that doesn't work (it relies on features of your stdio implementation),
1293 then you need something more like this:
1296 for ($curpos = tell(GWFILE); <GWFILE>; $curpos = tell(GWFILE)) {
1297 # search for some stuff and put it into files
1300 seek(GWFILE, $curpos, 0); # seek to where we had been
1303 If this still doesn't work, look into the C<clearerr> method
1304 from C<IO::Handle>, which resets the error and end-of-file states
1307 There's also a C<File::Tail> module from CPAN.
1309 =head2 How do I dup() a filehandle in Perl?
1312 If you check L<perlfunc/open>, you'll see that several of the ways
1313 to call open() should do the trick. For example:
1315 open my $log, '>>', '/foo/logfile';
1316 open STDERR, '>&LOG';
1318 Or even with a literal numeric descriptor:
1320 my $fd = $ENV{MHCONTEXTFD};
1321 open $mhcontext, "<&=$fd"; # like fdopen(3S)
1323 Note that "<&STDIN" makes a copy, but "<&=STDIN" make
1324 an alias. That means if you close an aliased handle, all
1325 aliases become inaccessible. This is not true with
1328 Error checking, as always, has been left as an exercise for the reader.
1330 =head2 How do I close a file descriptor by number?
1331 X<file, closing file descriptors> X<POSIX> X<close>
1333 If, for some reason, you have a file descriptor instead of a
1334 filehandle (perhaps you used C<POSIX::open>), you can use the
1335 C<close()> function from the C<POSIX> module:
1339 POSIX::close( $fd );
1341 This should rarely be necessary, as the Perl C<close()> function is to be
1342 used for things that Perl opened itself, even if it was a dup of a
1343 numeric descriptor as with C<MHCONTEXT> above. But if you really have
1344 to, you may be able to do this:
1346 require 'sys/syscall.ph';
1347 my $rc = syscall(&SYS_close, $fd + 0); # must force numeric
1348 die "can't sysclose $fd: $!" unless $rc == -1;
1350 Or, just use the fdopen(3S) feature of C<open()>:
1353 open my( $fh ), "<&=$fd" or die "Cannot reopen fd=$fd: $!";
1357 =head2 Why can't I use "C:\temp\foo" in DOS paths? Why doesn't `C:\temp\foo.exe` work?
1358 X<filename, DOS issues>
1360 Whoops! You just put a tab and a formfeed into that filename!
1361 Remember that within double quoted strings ("like\this"), the
1362 backslash is an escape character. The full list of these is in
1363 L<perlop/Quote and Quote-like Operators>. Unsurprisingly, you don't
1364 have a file called "c:(tab)emp(formfeed)oo" or
1365 "c:(tab)emp(formfeed)oo.exe" on your legacy DOS filesystem.
1367 Either single-quote your strings, or (preferably) use forward slashes.
1368 Since all DOS and Windows versions since something like MS-DOS 2.0 or so
1369 have treated C</> and C<\> the same in a path, you might as well use the
1370 one that doesn't clash with Perl--or the POSIX shell, ANSI C and C++,
1371 awk, Tcl, Java, or Python, just to mention a few. POSIX paths
1372 are more portable, too.
1374 =head2 Why doesn't glob("*.*") get all the files?
1377 Because even on non-Unix ports, Perl's glob function follows standard
1378 Unix globbing semantics. You'll need C<glob("*")> to get all (non-hidden)
1379 files. This makes glob() portable even to legacy systems. Your
1380 port may include proprietary globbing functions as well. Check its
1381 documentation for details.
1383 =head2 Why does Perl let me delete read-only files? Why does C<-i> clobber protected files? Isn't this a bug in Perl?
1385 This is elaborately and painstakingly described in the
1386 F<file-dir-perms> article in the "Far More Than You Ever Wanted To
1387 Know" collection in http://www.cpan.org/misc/olddoc/FMTEYEWTK.tgz .
1389 The executive summary: learn how your filesystem works. The
1390 permissions on a file say what can happen to the data in that file.
1391 The permissions on a directory say what can happen to the list of
1392 files in that directory. If you delete a file, you're removing its
1393 name from the directory (so the operation depends on the permissions
1394 of the directory, not of the file). If you try to write to the file,
1395 the permissions of the file govern whether you're allowed to.
1397 =head2 How do I select a random line from a file?
1398 X<file, selecting a random line>
1400 Short of loading the file into a database or pre-indexing the lines in
1401 the file, there are a couple of things that you can do.
1403 Here's a reservoir-sampling algorithm from the Camel Book:
1406 rand($.) < 1 && ($line = $_) while <>;
1408 This has a significant advantage in space over reading the whole file
1409 in. You can find a proof of this method in I<The Art of Computer
1410 Programming>, Volume 2, Section 3.4.2, by Donald E. Knuth.
1412 You can use the C<File::Random> module which provides a function
1415 use File::Random qw/random_line/;
1416 my $line = random_line($filename);
1418 Another way is to use the C<Tie::File> module, which treats the entire
1419 file as an array. Simply access a random array element.
1421 =head2 Why do I get weird spaces when I print an array of lines?
1423 (contributed by brian d foy)
1425 If you are seeing spaces between the elements of your array when
1426 you print the array, you are probably interpolating the array in
1429 my @animals = qw(camel llama alpaca vicuna);
1430 print "animals are: @animals\n";
1432 It's the double quotes, not the C<print>, doing this. Whenever you
1433 interpolate an array in a double quote context, Perl joins the
1434 elements with spaces (or whatever is in C<$">, which is a space by
1437 animals are: camel llama alpaca vicuna
1439 This is different than printing the array without the interpolation:
1441 my @animals = qw(camel llama alpaca vicuna);
1442 print "animals are: ", @animals, "\n";
1444 Now the output doesn't have the spaces between the elements because
1445 the elements of C<@animals> simply become part of the list to
1448 animals are: camelllamaalpacavicuna
1450 You might notice this when each of the elements of C<@array> end with
1451 a newline. You expect to print one element per line, but notice that
1452 every line after the first is indented:
1455 this is another line
1456 this is the third line
1458 That extra space comes from the interpolation of the array. If you
1459 don't want to put anything between your array elements, don't use the
1460 array in double quotes. You can send it to print without them:
1464 =head2 How do I traverse a directory tree?
1466 (contributed by brian d foy)
1468 The C<File::Find> module, which comes with Perl, does all of the hard
1469 work to traverse a directory structure. It comes with Perl. You simply
1470 call the C<find> subroutine with a callback subroutine and the
1471 directories you want to traverse:
1475 find( \&wanted, @directories );
1478 # full path in $File::Find::name
1479 # just filename in $_
1480 ... do whatever you want to do ...
1483 The C<File::Find::Closures>, which you can download from CPAN, provides
1484 many ready-to-use subroutines that you can use with C<File::Find>.
1486 The C<File::Finder>, which you can download from CPAN, can help you
1487 create the callback subroutine using something closer to the syntax of
1488 the C<find> command-line utility:
1493 my $deep_dirs = File::Finder->depth->type('d')->ls->exec('rmdir','{}');
1495 find( $deep_dirs->as_options, @places );
1497 The C<File::Find::Rule> module, which you can download from CPAN, has
1498 a similar interface, but does the traversal for you too:
1500 use File::Find::Rule;
1502 my @files = File::Find::Rule->file()
1506 =head2 How do I delete a directory tree?
1508 (contributed by brian d foy)
1510 If you have an empty directory, you can use Perl's built-in C<rmdir>.
1511 If the directory is not empty (so, no files or subdirectories), you
1512 either have to empty it yourself (a lot of work) or use a module to
1515 The C<File::Path> module, which comes with Perl, has a C<remove_tree>
1516 which can take care of all of the hard work for you:
1518 use File::Path qw(remove_tree);
1520 remove_tree( @directories );
1522 The C<File::Path> module also has a legacy interface to the older
1523 C<rmtree> subroutine.
1525 =head2 How do I copy an entire directory?
1527 (contributed by Shlomi Fish)
1529 To do the equivalent of C<cp -R> (i.e. copy an entire directory tree
1530 recursively) in portable Perl, you'll either need to write something yourself
1531 or find a good CPAN module such as L<File::Copy::Recursive>.
1533 =head1 AUTHOR AND COPYRIGHT
1535 Copyright (c) 1997-2010 Tom Christiansen, Nathan Torkington, and
1536 other authors as noted. All rights reserved.
1538 This documentation is free; you can redistribute it and/or modify it
1539 under the same terms as Perl itself.
1541 Irrespective of its distribution, all code examples here are in the public
1542 domain. You are permitted and encouraged to use this code and any
1543 derivatives thereof in your own programs for fun or for profit as you
1544 see fit. A simple comment in the code giving credit to the FAQ would
1545 be courteous but is not required.