9 $ {$package . "::OVERLOAD"}{dummy}++; # Register with magic by touching.
10 *{$package . "::()"} = \&nil; # Make it findable via fetchmethod.
12 if ($_ eq 'fallback') {
16 if (not ref $sub and $sub !~ /::/) {
17 $ {$package . "::(" . $_} = $sub;
20 #print STDERR "Setting `$ {'package'}::\cO$_' to \\&`$sub'.\n";
21 *{$package . "::(" . $_} = \&{ $sub };
24 ${$package . "::()"} = $fb; # Make it findable too (fallback only).
28 $package = (caller())[0];
29 # *{$package . "::OVERLOAD"} = \&OVERLOAD;
31 $package->overload::OVERLOAD(@_);
35 $package = (caller())[0];
36 ${$package . "::OVERLOAD"}{dummy}++; # Upgrade the table
39 if ($_ eq 'fallback') {
40 undef $ {$package . "::()"};
42 delete $ {$package . "::"}{"(" . $_};
49 $package = ref $package if ref $package;
55 return undef unless $globref;
56 my $sub = \&{*$globref};
57 return $sub if $sub ne \&nil;
58 return shift->can($ {*$globref});
61 sub OverloadedStringify {
63 $package = ref $package if ref $package;
65 ov_method mycan($package, '(""'), $package;
70 $package = ref $package if ref $package;
71 #my $meth = $package->can('(' . shift);
72 ov_method mycan($package, '(' . shift), $package;
73 #return $meth if $meth ne \&nil;
78 my $package = ref $_[0];
79 return "$_[0]" unless $package;
80 bless $_[0], overload::Fake; # Non-overloaded package
82 bless $_[0], $package; # Back
83 $package . substr $str, index $str, '=';
87 (OverloadedStringify($_[0])) ?
92 sub mycan { # Real can would leave stubs.
93 my ($package, $meth) = @_;
94 return \*{$package . "::$meth"} if defined &{$package . "::$meth"};
96 foreach $p (@{$package . "::ISA"}) {
97 my $out = mycan($p, $meth);
109 overload - Package for overloading perl operations
122 $a = new SomeThing 57;
125 if (overload::Overloaded $b) {...}
127 $strval = overload::StrVal $b;
129 =head1 CAVEAT SCRIPTOR
131 Overloading of operators is a subject not to be taken lightly.
132 Neither its precise implementation, syntax, nor semantics are
133 100% endorsed by Larry Wall. So any of these may be changed
134 at some point in the future.
138 =head2 Declaration of overloaded functions
140 The compilation directive
147 declares function Number::add() for addition, and method muas() in
148 the "class" C<Number> (or one of its base classes)
149 for the assignment form C<*=> of multiplication.
151 Arguments of this directive come in (key, value) pairs. Legal values
152 are values legal inside a C<&{ ... }> call, so the name of a subroutine,
153 a reference to a subroutine, or an anonymous subroutine will all work.
154 Legal keys are listed below.
156 The subroutine C<add> will be called to execute C<$a+$b> if $a
157 is a reference to an object blessed into the package C<Number>, or if $a is
158 not an object from a package with defined mathemagic addition, but $b is a
159 reference to a C<Number>. It can also be called in other situations, like
160 C<$a+=7>, or C<$a++>. See L<MAGIC AUTOGENERATION>. (Mathemagical
161 methods refer to methods triggered by an overloaded mathematical
164 =head2 Calling Conventions for Binary Operations
166 The functions specified in the C<use overload ...> directive are called
167 with three (in one particular case with four, see L<Last Resort>)
168 arguments. If the corresponding operation is binary, then the first
169 two arguments are the two arguments of the operation. However, due to
170 general object calling conventions, the first argument should always be
171 an object in the package, so in the situation of C<7+$a>, the
172 order of the arguments is interchanged. It probably does not matter
173 when implementing the addition method, but whether the arguments
174 are reversed is vital to the subtraction method. The method can
175 query this information by examining the third argument, which can take
176 three different values:
182 the order of arguments is as in the current operation.
186 the arguments are reversed.
190 the current operation is an assignment variant (as in
191 C<$a+=7>), but the usual function is called instead. This additional
192 information can be used to generate some optimizations.
196 =head2 Calling Conventions for Unary Operations
198 Unary operation are considered binary operations with the second
199 argument being C<undef>. Thus the functions that overloads C<{"++"}>
200 is called with arguments C<($a,undef,'')> when $a++ is executed.
202 =head2 Overloadable Operations
204 The following symbols can be specified in C<use overload>:
208 =item * I<Arithmetic operations>
210 "+", "+=", "-", "-=", "*", "*=", "/", "/=", "%", "%=",
211 "**", "**=", "<<", "<<=", ">>", ">>=", "x", "x=", ".", ".=",
213 For these operations a substituted non-assignment variant can be called if
214 the assignment variant is not available. Methods for operations "C<+>",
215 "C<->", "C<+=>", and "C<-=>" can be called to automatically generate
216 increment and decrement methods. The operation "C<->" can be used to
217 autogenerate missing methods for unary minus or C<abs>.
219 =item * I<Comparison operations>
221 "<", "<=", ">", ">=", "==", "!=", "<=>",
222 "lt", "le", "gt", "ge", "eq", "ne", "cmp",
224 If the corresponding "spaceship" variant is available, it can be
225 used to substitute for the missing operation. During C<sort>ing
226 arrays, C<cmp> is used to compare values subject to C<use overload>.
228 =item * I<Bit operations>
230 "&", "^", "|", "neg", "!", "~",
232 "C<neg>" stands for unary minus. If the method for C<neg> is not
233 specified, it can be autogenerated using the method for
234 subtraction. If the method for "C<!>" is not specified, it can be
235 autogenerated using the methods for "C<bool>", or "C<\"\">", or "C<0+>".
237 =item * I<Increment and decrement>
241 If undefined, addition and subtraction methods can be
242 used instead. These operations are called both in prefix and
245 =item * I<Transcendental functions>
247 "atan2", "cos", "sin", "exp", "abs", "log", "sqrt",
249 If C<abs> is unavailable, it can be autogenerated using methods
250 for "E<lt>" or "E<lt>=E<gt>" combined with either unary minus or subtraction.
252 =item * I<Boolean, string and numeric conversion>
254 "bool", "\"\"", "0+",
256 If one or two of these operations are unavailable, the remaining ones can
257 be used instead. C<bool> is used in the flow control operators
258 (like C<while>) and for the ternary "C<?:>" operation. These functions can
259 return any arbitrary Perl value. If the corresponding operation for this value
260 is overloaded too, that operation will be called again with this value.
264 "nomethod", "fallback", "=",
266 see L<SPECIAL SYMBOLS FOR C<use overload>>.
270 See L<"Fallback"> for an explanation of when a missing method can be autogenerated.
272 =head1 SPECIAL SYMBOLS FOR C<use overload>
274 Three keys are recognized by Perl that are not covered by the above
279 C<"nomethod"> should be followed by a reference to a function of four
280 parameters. If defined, it is called when the overloading mechanism
281 cannot find a method for some operation. The first three arguments of
282 this function coincide with the arguments for the corresponding method if
283 it were found, the fourth argument is the symbol
284 corresponding to the missing method. If several methods are tried,
285 the last one is used. Say, C<1-$a> can be equivalent to
287 &nomethodMethod($a,1,1,"-")
289 if the pair C<"nomethod" =E<gt> "nomethodMethod"> was specified in the
290 C<use overload> directive.
292 If some operation cannot be resolved, and there is no function
293 assigned to C<"nomethod">, then an exception will be raised via die()--
294 unless C<"fallback"> was specified as a key in C<use overload> directive.
298 The key C<"fallback"> governs what to do if a method for a particular
299 operation is not found. Three different cases are possible depending on
300 the value of C<"fallback">:
307 substituted method (see L<MAGIC AUTOGENERATION>). If this fails, it
308 then tries to calls C<"nomethod"> value; if missing, an exception
313 The same as for the C<undef> value, but no exception is raised. Instead,
314 it silently reverts to what it would have done were there no C<use overload>
317 =item * defined, but FALSE
319 No autogeneration is tried. Perl tries to call
320 C<"nomethod"> value, and if this is missing, raises an exception.
324 =head2 Copy Constructor
326 The value for C<"="> is a reference to a function with three
327 arguments, i.e., it looks like the other values in C<use
328 overload>. However, it does not overload the Perl assignment
329 operator. This would go against Camel hair.
331 This operation is called in the situations when a mutator is applied
332 to a reference that shares its object with some other reference, such
338 To make this change $a and not change $b, a copy of C<$$a> is made,
339 and $a is assigned a reference to this new object. This operation is
340 done during execution of the C<$a++>, and not during the assignment,
341 (so before the increment C<$$a> coincides with C<$$b>). This is only
342 done if C<++> is expressed via a method for C<'++'> or C<'+='>. Note
343 that if this operation is expressed via C<'+'> a nonmutator, i.e., as
349 then C<$a> does not reference a new copy of C<$$a>, since $$a does not
350 appear as lvalue when the above code is executed.
352 If the copy constructor is required during the execution of some mutator,
353 but a method for C<'='> was not specified, it can be autogenerated as a
354 string copy if the object is a plain scalar.
360 The actually executed code for
363 Something else which does not modify $a or $b....
369 Something else which does not modify $a or $b....
370 $a = $a->clone(undef,"");
373 if $b was mathemagical, and C<'++'> was overloaded with C<\&incr>,
374 C<'='> was overloaded with C<\&clone>.
378 =head1 MAGIC AUTOGENERATION
380 If a method for an operation is not found, and the value for C<"fallback"> is
381 TRUE or undefined, Perl tries to autogenerate a substitute method for
382 the missing operation based on the defined operations. Autogenerated method
383 substitutions are possible for the following operations:
387 =item I<Assignment forms of arithmetic operations>
389 C<$a+=$b> can use the method for C<"+"> if the method for C<"+=">
392 =item I<Conversion operations>
394 String, numeric, and boolean conversion are calculated in terms of one
395 another if not all of them are defined.
397 =item I<Increment and decrement>
399 The C<++$a> operation can be expressed in terms of C<$a+=1> or C<$a+1>,
400 and C<$a--> in terms of C<$a-=1> and C<$a-1>.
404 can be expressed in terms of C<$aE<lt>0> and C<-$a> (or C<0-$a>).
408 can be expressed in terms of subtraction.
412 C<!> and C<not> can be expressed in terms of boolean conversion, or
413 string or numerical conversion.
415 =item I<Concatenation>
417 can be expressed in terms of string conversion.
419 =item I<Comparison operations>
421 can be expressed in terms of its "spaceship" counterpart: either
422 C<E<lt>=E<gt>> or C<cmp>:
424 <, >, <=, >=, ==, != in terms of <=>
425 lt, gt, le, ge, eq, ne in terms of cmp
427 =item I<Copy operator>
429 can be expressed in terms of an assignment to the dereferenced value, if this
430 value is a scalar and not a reference.
436 The restriction for the comparison operation is that even if, for example,
437 `C<cmp>' should return a blessed reference, the autogenerated `C<lt>'
438 function will produce only a standard logical value based on the
439 numerical value of the result of `C<cmp>'. In particular, a working
440 numeric conversion is needed in this case (possibly expressed in terms of
443 Similarly, C<.=> and C<x=> operators lose their mathemagical properties
444 if the string conversion substitution is applied.
446 When you chop() a mathemagical object it is promoted to a string and its
447 mathemagical properties are lost. The same can happen with other
450 =head1 Run-time Overloading
452 Since all C<use> directives are executed at compile-time, the only way to
453 change overloading during run-time is to
455 eval 'use overload "+" => \&addmethod';
459 eval 'no overload "+", "--", "<="';
461 though the use of these constructs during run-time is questionable.
463 =head1 Public functions
465 Package C<overload.pm> provides the following public functions:
469 =item overload::StrVal(arg)
471 Gives string value of C<arg> as in absence of stringify overloading.
473 =item overload::Overloaded(arg)
475 Returns true if C<arg> is subject to overloading of some operations.
477 =item overload::Method(obj,op)
479 Returns C<undef> or a reference to the method that implements C<op>.
483 =head1 IMPLEMENTATION
485 What follows is subject to change RSN.
487 The table of methods for all operations is cached as magic in the
488 symbol table hash for the package. The table is rechecked for changes due to
489 C<use overload>, C<no overload>, and @ISA only during
490 C<bless>ing; so if they are changed dynamically, you'll need an
491 additional fake C<bless>ing to update the table.
493 (Every SVish thing has a magic queue, and magic is an entry in that queue.
494 This is how a single variable may participate in multiple forms of magic
495 simultaneously. For instance, environment variables regularly have two
496 forms at once: their %ENV magic and their taint magic.)
498 If an object belongs to a package using overload, it carries a special
499 flag. Thus the only speed penalty during arithmetic operations without
500 overloading is the checking of this flag.
502 In fact, if C<use overload> is not present, there is almost no overhead for
503 overloadable operations, so most programs should not suffer measurable
504 performance penalties. A considerable effort was made to minimize the overhead
505 when overload is used and the current operation is overloadable but
506 the arguments in question do not belong to packages using overload. When
507 in doubt, test your speed with C<use overload> and without it. So far there
508 have been no reports of substantial speed degradation if Perl is compiled
509 with optimization turned on.
511 There is no size penalty for data if overload is not used.
513 Copying (C<$a=$b>) is shallow; however, a one-level-deep copying is
514 carried out before any operation that can imply an assignment to the
515 object $a (or $b) refers to, like C<$a++>. You can override this
516 behavior by defining your own copy constructor (see L<"Copy Constructor">).
518 It is expected that arguments to methods that are not explicitly supposed
519 to be changed are constant (but this is not enforced).
523 Ilya Zakharevich E<lt>F<ilya@math.mps.ohio-state.edu>E<gt>.
527 When Perl is run with the B<-Do> switch or its equivalent, overloading
528 induces diagnostic messages.
532 Because it is used for overloading, the per-package associative array
533 %OVERLOAD now has a special meaning in Perl. The symbol table is
534 filled with names looking like line-noise.
536 For the purpose of inheritance every overloaded package behaves as if
537 C<fallback> is present (possibly undefined). This may create
538 interesting effects if some package is not overloaded, but inherits
539 from two overloaded packages.
541 This document is confusing.