1 package SQL::Abstract; # see doc at end of file
3 # LDNOTE : this code is heavy refactoring from original SQLA.
4 # Several design decisions will need discussion during
5 # the test / diffusion / acceptance phase; those are marked with flag
6 # 'LDNOTE' (note by laurent.dami AT free.fr)
14 #======================================================================
16 #======================================================================
18 our $VERSION = '1.65_02';
20 # This would confuse some packagers
21 $VERSION = eval $VERSION if $VERSION =~ /_/; # numify for warning-free dev releases
25 # special operators (-in, -between). May be extended/overridden by user.
26 # See section WHERE: BUILTIN SPECIAL OPERATORS below for implementation
27 my @BUILTIN_SPECIAL_OPS = (
28 {regex => qr/^(not )?between$/i, handler => '_where_field_BETWEEN'},
29 {regex => qr/^(not )?in$/i, handler => '_where_field_IN'},
32 # unaryish operators - key maps to handler
33 my @BUILTIN_UNARY_OPS = (
34 # the digits are backcompat stuff
35 { regex => qr/^and (?: \s? \d+ )? $/xi, handler => '_where_op_ANDOR' },
36 { regex => qr/^or (?: \s? \d+ )? $/xi, handler => '_where_op_ANDOR' },
37 { regex => qr/^nest (?: \s? \d+ )? $/xi, handler => '_where_op_NEST' },
38 { regex => qr/^ (?: not \s )? bool $/xi, handler => '_where_op_BOOL' },
41 #======================================================================
42 # DEBUGGING AND ERROR REPORTING
43 #======================================================================
46 return unless $_[0]->{debug}; shift; # a little faster
47 my $func = (caller(1))[3];
48 warn "[$func] ", @_, "\n";
52 my($func) = (caller(1))[3];
53 carp "[$func] Warning: ", @_;
57 my($func) = (caller(1))[3];
58 croak "[$func] Fatal: ", @_;
62 #======================================================================
64 #======================================================================
68 my $class = ref($self) || $self;
69 my %opt = (ref $_[0] eq 'HASH') ? %{$_[0]} : @_;
71 # choose our case by keeping an option around
72 delete $opt{case} if $opt{case} && $opt{case} ne 'lower';
74 # default logic for interpreting arrayrefs
75 $opt{logic} = $opt{logic} ? uc $opt{logic} : 'OR';
77 # how to return bind vars
78 # LDNOTE: changed nwiger code : why this 'delete' ??
79 # $opt{bindtype} ||= delete($opt{bind_type}) || 'normal';
80 $opt{bindtype} ||= 'normal';
82 # default comparison is "=", but can be overridden
85 # try to recognize which are the 'equality' and 'unequality' ops
86 # (temporary quickfix, should go through a more seasoned API)
87 $opt{equality_op} = qr/^(\Q$opt{cmp}\E|is|(is\s+)?like)$/i;
88 $opt{inequality_op} = qr/^(!=|<>|(is\s+)?not(\s+like)?)$/i;
91 $opt{sqltrue} ||= '1=1';
92 $opt{sqlfalse} ||= '0=1';
95 $opt{special_ops} ||= [];
96 push @{$opt{special_ops}}, @BUILTIN_SPECIAL_OPS;
99 $opt{unary_ops} ||= [];
100 push @{$opt{unary_ops}}, @BUILTIN_UNARY_OPS;
102 return bless \%opt, $class;
107 #======================================================================
109 #======================================================================
113 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
114 my $data = shift || return;
117 my $method = $self->_METHOD_FOR_refkind("_insert", $data);
118 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->$method($data);
119 $sql = join " ", $self->_sqlcase('insert into'), $table, $sql;
121 if (my $ret = $options->{returning}) {
122 $sql .= $self->_insert_returning ($ret);
125 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
128 sub _insert_returning {
129 my ($self, $fields) = @_;
131 my $f = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($fields, {
132 ARRAYREF => sub {join ', ', map { $self->_quote($_) } @$fields;},
133 SCALAR => sub {$self->_quote($fields)},
134 SCALARREF => sub {$$fields},
136 return join (' ', $self->_sqlcase(' returning'), $f);
139 sub _insert_HASHREF { # explicit list of fields and then values
140 my ($self, $data) = @_;
142 my @fields = sort keys %$data;
144 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_insert_values($data);
147 $_ = $self->_quote($_) foreach @fields;
148 $sql = "( ".join(", ", @fields).") ".$sql;
150 return ($sql, @bind);
153 sub _insert_ARRAYREF { # just generate values(?,?) part (no list of fields)
154 my ($self, $data) = @_;
156 # no names (arrayref) so can't generate bindtype
157 $self->{bindtype} ne 'columns'
158 or belch "can't do 'columns' bindtype when called with arrayref";
160 # fold the list of values into a hash of column name - value pairs
161 # (where the column names are artificially generated, and their
162 # lexicographical ordering keep the ordering of the original list)
163 my $i = "a"; # incremented values will be in lexicographical order
164 my $data_in_hash = { map { ($i++ => $_) } @$data };
166 return $self->_insert_values($data_in_hash);
169 sub _insert_ARRAYREFREF { # literal SQL with bind
170 my ($self, $data) = @_;
172 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$data};
173 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
175 return ($sql, @bind);
179 sub _insert_SCALARREF { # literal SQL without bind
180 my ($self, $data) = @_;
186 my ($self, $data) = @_;
188 my (@values, @all_bind);
189 foreach my $column (sort keys %$data) {
190 my $v = $data->{$column};
192 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
195 if ($self->{array_datatypes}) { # if array datatype are activated
197 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($column, $v);
199 else { # else literal SQL with bind
200 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
201 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
203 push @all_bind, @bind;
207 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
208 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$v};
209 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
211 push @all_bind, @bind;
214 # THINK : anything useful to do with a HASHREF ?
215 HASHREF => sub { # (nothing, but old SQLA passed it through)
216 #TODO in SQLA >= 2.0 it will die instead
217 belch "HASH ref as bind value in insert is not supported";
219 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($column, $v);
222 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL without bind
226 SCALAR_or_UNDEF => sub {
228 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($column, $v);
235 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('values')." ( ".join(", ", @values)." )";
236 return ($sql, @all_bind);
241 #======================================================================
243 #======================================================================
248 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
249 my $data = shift || return;
252 # first build the 'SET' part of the sql statement
253 my (@set, @all_bind);
254 puke "Unsupported data type specified to \$sql->update"
255 unless ref $data eq 'HASH';
257 for my $k (sort keys %$data) {
260 my $label = $self->_quote($k);
262 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
264 if ($self->{array_datatypes}) { # array datatype
265 push @set, "$label = ?";
266 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
268 else { # literal SQL with bind
269 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
270 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
271 push @set, "$label = $sql";
272 push @all_bind, @bind;
275 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
276 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$v};
277 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
278 push @set, "$label = $sql";
279 push @all_bind, @bind;
281 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL without bind
282 push @set, "$label = $$v";
284 SCALAR_or_UNDEF => sub {
285 push @set, "$label = ?";
286 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
292 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('update') . " $table " . $self->_sqlcase('set ')
296 my($where_sql, @where_bind) = $self->where($where);
298 push @all_bind, @where_bind;
301 return wantarray ? ($sql, @all_bind) : $sql;
307 #======================================================================
309 #======================================================================
314 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
315 my $fields = shift || '*';
319 my($where_sql, @bind) = $self->where($where, $order);
321 my $f = (ref $fields eq 'ARRAY') ? join ', ', map { $self->_quote($_) } @$fields
323 my $sql = join(' ', $self->_sqlcase('select'), $f,
324 $self->_sqlcase('from'), $table)
327 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
330 #======================================================================
332 #======================================================================
337 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
341 my($where_sql, @bind) = $self->where($where);
342 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('delete from') . " $table" . $where_sql;
344 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
348 #======================================================================
350 #======================================================================
354 # Finally, a separate routine just to handle WHERE clauses
356 my ($self, $where, $order) = @_;
359 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_recurse_where($where);
360 $sql = $sql ? $self->_sqlcase(' where ') . "( $sql )" : '';
364 $sql .= $self->_order_by($order);
367 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
372 my ($self, $where, $logic) = @_;
374 # dispatch on appropriate method according to refkind of $where
375 my $method = $self->_METHOD_FOR_refkind("_where", $where);
377 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->$method($where, $logic);
379 # DBIx::Class directly calls _recurse_where in scalar context, so
380 # we must implement it, even if not in the official API
381 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
386 #======================================================================
387 # WHERE: top-level ARRAYREF
388 #======================================================================
391 sub _where_ARRAYREF {
392 my ($self, $where, $logic) = @_;
394 $logic = uc($logic || $self->{logic});
395 $logic eq 'AND' or $logic eq 'OR' or puke "unknown logic: $logic";
397 my @clauses = @$where;
399 my (@sql_clauses, @all_bind);
400 # need to use while() so can shift() for pairs
401 while (my $el = shift @clauses) {
403 # switch according to kind of $el and get corresponding ($sql, @bind)
404 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($el, {
406 # skip empty elements, otherwise get invalid trailing AND stuff
407 ARRAYREF => sub {$self->_recurse_where($el) if @$el},
409 ARRAYREFREF => sub { @{${$el}} if @{${$el}}},
411 HASHREF => sub {$self->_recurse_where($el, 'and') if %$el},
412 # LDNOTE : previous SQLA code for hashrefs was creating a dirty
413 # side-effect: the first hashref within an array would change
414 # the global logic to 'AND'. So [ {cond1, cond2}, [cond3, cond4] ]
415 # was interpreted as "(cond1 AND cond2) OR (cond3 AND cond4)",
416 # whereas it should be "(cond1 AND cond2) OR (cond3 OR cond4)".
418 SCALARREF => sub { ($$el); },
420 SCALAR => sub {# top-level arrayref with scalars, recurse in pairs
421 $self->_recurse_where({$el => shift(@clauses)})},
423 UNDEF => sub {puke "not supported : UNDEF in arrayref" },
427 push @sql_clauses, $sql;
428 push @all_bind, @bind;
432 return $self->_join_sql_clauses($logic, \@sql_clauses, \@all_bind);
435 #======================================================================
436 # WHERE: top-level ARRAYREFREF
437 #======================================================================
439 sub _where_ARRAYREFREF {
440 my ($self, $where) = @_;
441 my ($sql, @bind) = @{${$where}};
443 return ($sql, @bind);
446 #======================================================================
447 # WHERE: top-level HASHREF
448 #======================================================================
451 my ($self, $where) = @_;
452 my (@sql_clauses, @all_bind);
454 for my $k (sort keys %$where) {
455 my $v = $where->{$k};
457 # ($k => $v) is either a special unary op or a regular hashpair
458 my ($sql, @bind) = do {
460 # put the operator in canonical form
462 $op =~ s/^-//; # remove initial dash
463 $op =~ s/[_\t ]+/ /g; # underscores and whitespace become single spaces
464 $op =~ s/^\s+|\s+$//g;# remove leading/trailing space
466 $self->_debug("Unary OP(-$op) within hashref, recursing...");
468 my $op_entry = List::Util::first {$op =~ $_->{regex}} @{$self->{unary_ops}};
469 if (my $handler = $op_entry->{handler}) {
470 if (not ref $handler) {
471 if ($op =~ s/\s?\d+$//) {
472 belch 'Use of [and|or|nest]_N modifiers is deprecated and will be removed in SQLA v2.0. '
473 . "You probably wanted ...-and => [ -$op => COND1, -$op => COND2 ... ]";
475 $self->$handler ($op, $v);
477 elsif (ref $handler eq 'CODE') {
478 $handler->($self, $op, $v);
481 puke "Illegal handler for operator $k - expecting a method name or a coderef";
485 $self->debug("Generic unary OP: $k - recursing as function");
486 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_where_func_generic ($op, $v);
487 $sql = "($sql)" unless $self->{_nested_func_lhs} eq $k; # top level vs nested
492 my $method = $self->_METHOD_FOR_refkind("_where_hashpair", $v);
493 $self->$method($k, $v);
497 push @sql_clauses, $sql;
498 push @all_bind, @bind;
501 return $self->_join_sql_clauses('and', \@sql_clauses, \@all_bind);
504 sub _where_func_generic {
505 my ($self, $op, $rhs) = @_;
507 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind ($rhs, {
509 puke "Illegal use of top-level '$op'"
510 unless $self->{_nested_func_lhs};
513 $self->_convert('?'),
514 $self->_bindtype($self->{_nested_func_lhs}, $rhs)
518 $self->_recurse_where ($rhs)
522 $sql = sprintf ('%s %s',
523 $self->_sqlcase($op),
527 return ($sql, @bind);
530 sub _where_op_ANDOR {
531 my ($self, $op, $v) = @_;
533 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
535 return $self->_where_ARRAYREF($v, $op);
539 return ( $op =~ /^or/i )
540 ? $self->_where_ARRAYREF( [ map { $_ => $v->{$_} } ( sort keys %$v ) ], $op )
541 : $self->_where_HASHREF($v);
545 puke "-$op => \\\$scalar not supported, use -nest => ...";
549 puke "-$op => \\[..] not supported, use -nest => ...";
552 SCALAR => sub { # permissively interpreted as SQL
553 puke "-$op => 'scalar' not supported, use -nest => \\'scalar'";
557 puke "-$op => undef not supported";
563 my ($self, $op, $v) = @_;
565 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
567 SCALAR => sub { # permissively interpreted as SQL
568 belch "literal SQL should be -nest => \\'scalar' "
569 . "instead of -nest => 'scalar' ";
574 puke "-$op => undef not supported";
578 $self->_recurse_where ($v);
586 my ($self, $op, $v) = @_;
588 my ( $prefix, $suffix ) = ( $op =~ /\bnot\b/i )
592 my ($sql, @bind) = do {
593 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
594 SCALAR => sub { # interpreted as SQL column
595 $self->_convert($self->_quote($v));
599 puke "-$op => undef not supported";
603 $self->_recurse_where ($v);
609 join ('', $prefix, $sql, $suffix),
615 sub _where_hashpair_ARRAYREF {
616 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
619 my @v = @$v; # need copy because of shift below
620 $self->_debug("ARRAY($k) means distribute over elements");
622 # put apart first element if it is an operator (-and, -or)
624 (defined $v[0] && $v[0] =~ /^ - (?: AND|OR ) $/ix)
628 my @distributed = map { {$k => $_} } @v;
631 $self->_debug("OP($op) reinjected into the distributed array");
632 unshift @distributed, $op;
635 my $logic = $op ? substr($op, 1) : '';
637 return $self->_recurse_where(\@distributed, $logic);
640 # LDNOTE : not sure of this one. What does "distribute over nothing" mean?
641 $self->_debug("empty ARRAY($k) means 0=1");
642 return ($self->{sqlfalse});
646 sub _where_hashpair_HASHREF {
647 my ($self, $k, $v, $logic) = @_;
650 local $self->{_nested_func_lhs} = $self->{_nested_func_lhs};
652 my ($all_sql, @all_bind);
654 for my $orig_op (sort keys %$v) {
655 my $val = $v->{$orig_op};
657 # put the operator in canonical form
659 $op =~ s/^-//; # remove initial dash
660 $op =~ s/[_\t ]+/ /g; # underscores and whitespace become single spaces
661 $op =~ s/^\s+|\s+$//g;# remove leading/trailing space
665 # CASE: col-value logic modifiers
666 if ( $orig_op =~ /^ \- (and|or) $/xi ) {
667 ($sql, @bind) = $self->_where_hashpair_HASHREF($k, $val, $1);
669 # CASE: special operators like -in or -between
670 elsif ( my $special_op = List::Util::first {$op =~ $_->{regex}} @{$self->{special_ops}} ) {
671 my $handler = $special_op->{handler};
673 puke "No handler supplied for special operator $orig_op";
675 elsif (not ref $handler) {
676 ($sql, @bind) = $self->$handler ($k, $op, $val);
678 elsif (ref $handler eq 'CODE') {
679 ($sql, @bind) = $handler->($self, $k, $op, $val);
682 puke "Illegal handler for special operator $orig_op - expecting a method name or a coderef";
686 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($val, {
688 ARRAYREF => sub { # CASE: col => {op => \@vals}
689 ($sql, @bind) = $self->_where_field_op_ARRAYREF($k, $op, $val);
692 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # CASE: col => {op => \[$sql, @bind]} (literal SQL with bind)
693 my ($sub_sql, @sub_bind) = @$$val;
694 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@sub_bind);
695 $sql = join ' ', $self->_convert($self->_quote($k)),
696 $self->_sqlcase($op),
701 UNDEF => sub { # CASE: col => {op => undef} : sql "IS (NOT)? NULL"
702 my $is = ($op =~ $self->{equality_op}) ? 'is' :
703 ($op =~ $self->{inequality_op}) ? 'is not' :
704 puke "unexpected operator '$orig_op' with undef operand";
705 $sql = $self->_quote($k) . $self->_sqlcase(" $is null");
708 FALLBACK => sub { # CASE: col => {op/func => $stuff}
710 # retain for proper column type bind
711 $self->{_nested_func_lhs} ||= $k;
713 ($sql, @bind) = $self->_where_func_generic ($op, $val);
716 $self->_convert($self->_quote($k)),
717 $self->{_nested_func_lhs} eq $k ? $sql : "($sql)", # top level vs nested
723 ($all_sql) = (defined $all_sql and $all_sql) ? $self->_join_sql_clauses($logic, [$all_sql, $sql], []) : $sql;
724 push @all_bind, @bind;
726 return ($all_sql, @all_bind);
731 sub _where_field_op_ARRAYREF {
732 my ($self, $k, $op, $vals) = @_;
734 my @vals = @$vals; #always work on a copy
737 $self->_debug(sprintf '%s means multiple elements: [ %s ]',
739 join (', ', map { defined $_ ? "'$_'" : 'NULL' } @vals ),
742 # see if the first element is an -and/-or op
744 if (defined $vals[0] && $vals[0] =~ /^ - ( AND|OR ) $/ix) {
749 # distribute $op over each remaining member of @vals, append logic if exists
750 return $self->_recurse_where([map { {$k => {$op, $_}} } @vals], $logic);
752 # LDNOTE : had planned to change the distribution logic when
753 # $op =~ $self->{inequality_op}, because of Morgan laws :
754 # with {field => {'!=' => [22, 33]}}, it would be ridiculous to generate
755 # WHERE field != 22 OR field != 33 : the user probably means
756 # WHERE field != 22 AND field != 33.
757 # To do this, replace the above to roughly :
758 # my $logic = ($op =~ $self->{inequality_op}) ? 'AND' : 'OR';
759 # return $self->_recurse_where([map { {$k => {$op, $_}} } @vals], $logic);
763 # try to DWIM on equality operators
764 # LDNOTE : not 100% sure this is the correct thing to do ...
765 return ($self->{sqlfalse}) if $op =~ $self->{equality_op};
766 return ($self->{sqltrue}) if $op =~ $self->{inequality_op};
769 puke "operator '$op' applied on an empty array (field '$k')";
774 sub _where_hashpair_SCALARREF {
775 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
776 $self->_debug("SCALAR($k) means literal SQL: $$v");
777 my $sql = $self->_quote($k) . " " . $$v;
781 # literal SQL with bind
782 sub _where_hashpair_ARRAYREFREF {
783 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
784 $self->_debug("REF($k) means literal SQL: @${$v}");
785 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$v};
786 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
787 $sql = $self->_quote($k) . " " . $sql;
788 return ($sql, @bind );
791 # literal SQL without bind
792 sub _where_hashpair_SCALAR {
793 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
794 $self->_debug("NOREF($k) means simple key=val: $k $self->{cmp} $v");
795 my $sql = join ' ', $self->_convert($self->_quote($k)),
796 $self->_sqlcase($self->{cmp}),
797 $self->_convert('?');
798 my @bind = $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
799 return ( $sql, @bind);
803 sub _where_hashpair_UNDEF {
804 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
805 $self->_debug("UNDEF($k) means IS NULL");
806 my $sql = $self->_quote($k) . $self->_sqlcase(' is null');
810 #======================================================================
811 # WHERE: TOP-LEVEL OTHERS (SCALARREF, SCALAR, UNDEF)
812 #======================================================================
815 sub _where_SCALARREF {
816 my ($self, $where) = @_;
819 $self->_debug("SCALAR(*top) means literal SQL: $$where");
825 my ($self, $where) = @_;
828 $self->_debug("NOREF(*top) means literal SQL: $where");
839 #======================================================================
840 # WHERE: BUILTIN SPECIAL OPERATORS (-in, -between)
841 #======================================================================
844 sub _where_field_BETWEEN {
845 my ($self, $k, $op, $vals) = @_;
847 my ($label, $and, $placeholder);
848 $label = $self->_convert($self->_quote($k));
849 $and = ' ' . $self->_sqlcase('and') . ' ';
850 $placeholder = $self->_convert('?');
851 $op = $self->_sqlcase($op);
853 my ($clause, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($vals, {
861 puke "special op 'between' accepts an arrayref with exactly two values"
864 my (@all_sql, @all_bind);
865 foreach my $val (@$vals) {
866 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($val, {
868 return ($placeholder, ($val));
871 return ($self->_convert($$val), ());
874 my ($sql, @bind) = @$$val;
875 return ($self->_convert($sql), @bind);
879 push @all_bind, @bind;
883 (join $and, @all_sql),
884 $self->_bindtype($k, @all_bind),
888 puke "special op 'between' accepts an arrayref with two values, or a single literal scalarref/arrayref-ref";
892 my $sql = "( $label $op $clause )";
897 sub _where_field_IN {
898 my ($self, $k, $op, $vals) = @_;
900 # backwards compatibility : if scalar, force into an arrayref
901 $vals = [$vals] if defined $vals && ! ref $vals;
903 my ($label) = $self->_convert($self->_quote($k));
904 my ($placeholder) = $self->_convert('?');
905 $op = $self->_sqlcase($op);
907 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($vals, {
908 ARRAYREF => sub { # list of choices
909 if (@$vals) { # nonempty list
910 my $placeholders = join ", ", (($placeholder) x @$vals);
911 my $sql = "$label $op ( $placeholders )";
912 my @bind = $self->_bindtype($k, @$vals);
914 return ($sql, @bind);
916 else { # empty list : some databases won't understand "IN ()", so DWIM
917 my $sql = ($op =~ /\bnot\b/i) ? $self->{sqltrue} : $self->{sqlfalse};
922 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL
923 my $sql = $self->_open_outer_paren ($$vals);
924 return ("$label $op ( $sql )");
926 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
927 my ($sql, @bind) = @$$vals;
928 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
929 $sql = $self->_open_outer_paren ($sql);
930 return ("$label $op ( $sql )", @bind);
934 puke "special op 'in' requires an arrayref (or scalarref/arrayref-ref)";
938 return ($sql, @bind);
941 # Some databases (SQLite) treat col IN (1, 2) different from
942 # col IN ( (1, 2) ). Use this to strip all outer parens while
943 # adding them back in the corresponding method
944 sub _open_outer_paren {
945 my ($self, $sql) = @_;
946 $sql = $1 while $sql =~ /^ \s* \( (.*) \) \s* $/xs;
951 #======================================================================
953 #======================================================================
956 my ($self, $arg) = @_;
959 for my $c ($self->_order_by_chunks ($arg) ) {
960 $self->_SWITCH_refkind ($c, {
961 SCALAR => sub { push @sql, $c },
962 ARRAYREF => sub { push @sql, shift @$c; push @bind, @$c },
968 $self->_sqlcase(' order by'),
974 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
977 sub _order_by_chunks {
978 my ($self, $arg) = @_;
980 return $self->_SWITCH_refkind($arg, {
983 map { $self->_order_by_chunks ($_ ) } @$arg;
986 ARRAYREFREF => sub { [ @$$arg ] },
988 SCALAR => sub {$self->_quote($arg)},
990 UNDEF => sub {return () },
992 SCALARREF => sub {$$arg}, # literal SQL, no quoting
995 # get first pair in hash
996 my ($key, $val) = each %$arg;
998 return () unless $key;
1000 if ( (keys %$arg) > 1 or not $key =~ /^-(desc|asc)/i ) {
1001 puke "hash passed to _order_by must have exactly one key (-desc or -asc)";
1007 for my $c ($self->_order_by_chunks ($val)) {
1010 $self->_SWITCH_refkind ($c, {
1015 ($sql, @bind) = @$c;
1019 $sql = $sql . ' ' . $self->_sqlcase($direction);
1021 push @ret, [ $sql, @bind];
1030 #======================================================================
1031 # DATASOURCE (FOR NOW, JUST PLAIN TABLE OR LIST OF TABLES)
1032 #======================================================================
1037 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($from, {
1038 ARRAYREF => sub {join ', ', map { $self->_quote($_) } @$from;},
1039 SCALAR => sub {$self->_quote($from)},
1040 SCALARREF => sub {$$from},
1041 ARRAYREFREF => sub {join ', ', @$from;},
1046 #======================================================================
1048 #======================================================================
1050 # highly optimized, as it's called way too often
1052 # my ($self, $label) = @_;
1054 return '' unless defined $_[1];
1056 return ${$_[1]} if ref($_[1]) eq 'SCALAR';
1058 return $_[1] unless $_[0]->{quote_char};
1060 return '*' if $_[1] eq '*';
1063 if (ref($_[0]->{quote_char}) eq 'ARRAY') {
1064 ($l, $r) = @{$_[0]->{quote_char}};
1066 elsif (!ref($_[0]->{quote_char}) ) {
1067 ($l, $r) = ($_[0]->{quote_char}) x 2;
1070 puke "Unsupported quote_char format: $_[0]->{quote_char}";
1073 return $l . $_[1] . $r
1074 if ! defined $_[0]->{name_sep};
1076 return join( $_[0]->{name_sep}, map
1077 { $_ eq '*' ? $_ : $l . $_ . $r }
1078 ( $_[0]->{name_sep} ? split (/\Q$_[0]->{name_sep}\E/, $_[1] ) : $_[1] )
1083 # Conversion, if applicable
1085 my ($self, $arg) = @_;
1087 # LDNOTE : modified the previous implementation below because
1088 # it was not consistent : the first "return" is always an array,
1089 # the second "return" is context-dependent. Anyway, _convert
1090 # seems always used with just a single argument, so make it a
1092 # return @_ unless $self->{convert};
1093 # my $conv = $self->_sqlcase($self->{convert});
1094 # my @ret = map { $conv.'('.$_.')' } @_;
1095 # return wantarray ? @ret : $ret[0];
1096 if ($self->{convert}) {
1097 my $conv = $self->_sqlcase($self->{convert});
1098 $arg = $conv.'('.$arg.')';
1106 my($col, @vals) = @_;
1108 #LDNOTE : changed original implementation below because it did not make
1109 # sense when bindtype eq 'columns' and @vals > 1.
1110 # return $self->{bindtype} eq 'columns' ? [ $col, @vals ] : @vals;
1112 return $self->{bindtype} eq 'columns' ? map {[$col, $_]} @vals : @vals;
1115 # Dies if any element of @bind is not in [colname => value] format
1116 # if bindtype is 'columns'.
1117 sub _assert_bindval_matches_bindtype {
1118 my ($self, @bind) = @_;
1120 if ($self->{bindtype} eq 'columns') {
1121 foreach my $val (@bind) {
1122 if (!defined $val || ref($val) ne 'ARRAY' || @$val != 2) {
1123 die "bindtype 'columns' selected, you need to pass: [column_name => bind_value]"
1129 sub _join_sql_clauses {
1130 my ($self, $logic, $clauses_aref, $bind_aref) = @_;
1132 if (@$clauses_aref > 1) {
1133 my $join = " " . $self->_sqlcase($logic) . " ";
1134 my $sql = '( ' . join($join, @$clauses_aref) . ' )';
1135 return ($sql, @$bind_aref);
1137 elsif (@$clauses_aref) {
1138 return ($clauses_aref->[0], @$bind_aref); # no parentheses
1141 return (); # if no SQL, ignore @$bind_aref
1146 # Fix SQL case, if so requested
1150 # LDNOTE: if $self->{case} is true, then it contains 'lower', so we
1151 # don't touch the argument ... crooked logic, but let's not change it!
1152 return $self->{case} ? $_[0] : uc($_[0]);
1156 #======================================================================
1157 # DISPATCHING FROM REFKIND
1158 #======================================================================
1161 my ($self, $data) = @_;
1163 return 'UNDEF' unless defined $data;
1165 # blessed objects are treated like scalars
1166 my $ref = (Scalar::Util::blessed $data) ? '' : ref $data;
1168 return 'SCALAR' unless $ref;
1171 while ($ref eq 'REF') {
1173 $ref = (Scalar::Util::blessed $data) ? '' : ref $data;
1177 my $base = $ref || 'SCALAR';
1179 return $base . ('REF' x $n_steps);
1183 my ($self, $data) = @_;
1184 my @try = ($self->_refkind($data));
1185 push @try, 'SCALAR_or_UNDEF' if $try[0] eq 'SCALAR' || $try[0] eq 'UNDEF';
1186 push @try, 'FALLBACK';
1190 sub _METHOD_FOR_refkind {
1191 my ($self, $meth_prefix, $data) = @_;
1194 for (@{$self->_try_refkind($data)}) {
1195 $method = $self->can($meth_prefix."_".$_)
1199 return $method || puke "cannot dispatch on '$meth_prefix' for ".$self->_refkind($data);
1203 sub _SWITCH_refkind {
1204 my ($self, $data, $dispatch_table) = @_;
1207 for (@{$self->_try_refkind($data)}) {
1208 $coderef = $dispatch_table->{$_}
1212 puke "no dispatch entry for ".$self->_refkind($data)
1221 #======================================================================
1222 # VALUES, GENERATE, AUTOLOAD
1223 #======================================================================
1225 # LDNOTE: original code from nwiger, didn't touch code in that section
1226 # I feel the AUTOLOAD stuff should not be the default, it should
1227 # only be activated on explicit demand by user.
1231 my $data = shift || return;
1232 puke "Argument to ", __PACKAGE__, "->values must be a \\%hash"
1233 unless ref $data eq 'HASH';
1236 foreach my $k ( sort keys %$data ) {
1237 my $v = $data->{$k};
1238 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
1240 if ($self->{array_datatypes}) { # array datatype
1241 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
1243 else { # literal SQL with bind
1244 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
1245 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1246 push @all_bind, @bind;
1249 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
1250 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$v};
1251 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1252 push @all_bind, @bind;
1254 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL without bind
1256 SCALAR_or_UNDEF => sub {
1257 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
1268 my(@sql, @sqlq, @sqlv);
1272 if ($ref eq 'HASH') {
1273 for my $k (sort keys %$_) {
1276 my $label = $self->_quote($k);
1277 if ($r eq 'ARRAY') {
1278 # literal SQL with bind
1279 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
1280 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1281 push @sqlq, "$label = $sql";
1283 } elsif ($r eq 'SCALAR') {
1284 # literal SQL without bind
1285 push @sqlq, "$label = $$v";
1287 push @sqlq, "$label = ?";
1288 push @sqlv, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
1291 push @sql, $self->_sqlcase('set'), join ', ', @sqlq;
1292 } elsif ($ref eq 'ARRAY') {
1293 # unlike insert(), assume these are ONLY the column names, i.e. for SQL
1296 if ($r eq 'ARRAY') { # literal SQL with bind
1297 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
1298 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1301 } elsif ($r eq 'SCALAR') { # literal SQL without bind
1302 # embedded literal SQL
1309 push @sql, '(' . join(', ', @sqlq) . ')';
1310 } elsif ($ref eq 'SCALAR') {
1314 # strings get case twiddled
1315 push @sql, $self->_sqlcase($_);
1319 my $sql = join ' ', @sql;
1321 # this is pretty tricky
1322 # if ask for an array, return ($stmt, @bind)
1323 # otherwise, s/?/shift @sqlv/ to put it inline
1325 return ($sql, @sqlv);
1327 1 while $sql =~ s/\?/my $d = shift(@sqlv);
1328 ref $d ? $d->[1] : $d/e;
1337 # This allows us to check for a local, then _form, attr
1339 my($name) = $AUTOLOAD =~ /.*::(.+)/;
1340 return $self->generate($name, @_);
1351 SQL::Abstract - Generate SQL from Perl data structures
1357 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new;
1359 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->select($table, \@fields, \%where, \@order);
1361 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert($table, \%fieldvals || \@values);
1363 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->update($table, \%fieldvals, \%where);
1365 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->delete($table, \%where);
1367 # Then, use these in your DBI statements
1368 my $sth = $dbh->prepare($stmt);
1369 $sth->execute(@bind);
1371 # Just generate the WHERE clause
1372 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->where(\%where, \@order);
1374 # Return values in the same order, for hashed queries
1375 # See PERFORMANCE section for more details
1376 my @bind = $sql->values(\%fieldvals);
1380 This module was inspired by the excellent L<DBIx::Abstract>.
1381 However, in using that module I found that what I really wanted
1382 to do was generate SQL, but still retain complete control over my
1383 statement handles and use the DBI interface. So, I set out to
1384 create an abstract SQL generation module.
1386 While based on the concepts used by L<DBIx::Abstract>, there are
1387 several important differences, especially when it comes to WHERE
1388 clauses. I have modified the concepts used to make the SQL easier
1389 to generate from Perl data structures and, IMO, more intuitive.
1390 The underlying idea is for this module to do what you mean, based
1391 on the data structures you provide it. The big advantage is that
1392 you don't have to modify your code every time your data changes,
1393 as this module figures it out.
1395 To begin with, an SQL INSERT is as easy as just specifying a hash
1396 of C<key=value> pairs:
1399 name => 'Jimbo Bobson',
1400 phone => '123-456-7890',
1401 address => '42 Sister Lane',
1402 city => 'St. Louis',
1403 state => 'Louisiana',
1406 The SQL can then be generated with this:
1408 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert('people', \%data);
1410 Which would give you something like this:
1412 $stmt = "INSERT INTO people
1413 (address, city, name, phone, state)
1414 VALUES (?, ?, ?, ?, ?)";
1415 @bind = ('42 Sister Lane', 'St. Louis', 'Jimbo Bobson',
1416 '123-456-7890', 'Louisiana');
1418 These are then used directly in your DBI code:
1420 my $sth = $dbh->prepare($stmt);
1421 $sth->execute(@bind);
1423 =head2 Inserting and Updating Arrays
1425 If your database has array types (like for example Postgres),
1426 activate the special option C<< array_datatypes => 1 >>
1427 when creating the C<SQL::Abstract> object.
1428 Then you may use an arrayref to insert and update database array types:
1430 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(array_datatypes => 1);
1432 planets => [qw/Mercury Venus Earth Mars/]
1435 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert('solar_system', \%data);
1439 $stmt = "INSERT INTO solar_system (planets) VALUES (?)"
1441 @bind = (['Mercury', 'Venus', 'Earth', 'Mars']);
1444 =head2 Inserting and Updating SQL
1446 In order to apply SQL functions to elements of your C<%data> you may
1447 specify a reference to an arrayref for the given hash value. For example,
1448 if you need to execute the Oracle C<to_date> function on a value, you can
1449 say something like this:
1453 date_entered => \["to_date(?,'MM/DD/YYYY')", "03/02/2003"],
1456 The first value in the array is the actual SQL. Any other values are
1457 optional and would be included in the bind values array. This gives
1460 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert('people', \%data);
1462 $stmt = "INSERT INTO people (name, date_entered)
1463 VALUES (?, to_date(?,'MM/DD/YYYY'))";
1464 @bind = ('Bill', '03/02/2003');
1466 An UPDATE is just as easy, all you change is the name of the function:
1468 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->update('people', \%data);
1470 Notice that your C<%data> isn't touched; the module will generate
1471 the appropriately quirky SQL for you automatically. Usually you'll
1472 want to specify a WHERE clause for your UPDATE, though, which is
1473 where handling C<%where> hashes comes in handy...
1475 =head2 Complex where statements
1477 This module can generate pretty complicated WHERE statements
1478 easily. For example, simple C<key=value> pairs are taken to mean
1479 equality, and if you want to see if a field is within a set
1480 of values, you can use an arrayref. Let's say we wanted to
1481 SELECT some data based on this criteria:
1484 requestor => 'inna',
1485 worker => ['nwiger', 'rcwe', 'sfz'],
1486 status => { '!=', 'completed' }
1489 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->select('tickets', '*', \%where);
1491 The above would give you something like this:
1493 $stmt = "SELECT * FROM tickets WHERE
1494 ( requestor = ? ) AND ( status != ? )
1495 AND ( worker = ? OR worker = ? OR worker = ? )";
1496 @bind = ('inna', 'completed', 'nwiger', 'rcwe', 'sfz');
1498 Which you could then use in DBI code like so:
1500 my $sth = $dbh->prepare($stmt);
1501 $sth->execute(@bind);
1507 The functions are simple. There's one for each major SQL operation,
1508 and a constructor you use first. The arguments are specified in a
1509 similar order to each function (table, then fields, then a where
1510 clause) to try and simplify things.
1515 =head2 new(option => 'value')
1517 The C<new()> function takes a list of options and values, and returns
1518 a new B<SQL::Abstract> object which can then be used to generate SQL
1519 through the methods below. The options accepted are:
1525 If set to 'lower', then SQL will be generated in all lowercase. By
1526 default SQL is generated in "textbook" case meaning something like:
1528 SELECT a_field FROM a_table WHERE some_field LIKE '%someval%'
1530 Any setting other than 'lower' is ignored.
1534 This determines what the default comparison operator is. By default
1535 it is C<=>, meaning that a hash like this:
1537 %where = (name => 'nwiger', email => 'nate@wiger.org');
1539 Will generate SQL like this:
1541 WHERE name = 'nwiger' AND email = 'nate@wiger.org'
1543 However, you may want loose comparisons by default, so if you set
1544 C<cmp> to C<like> you would get SQL such as:
1546 WHERE name like 'nwiger' AND email like 'nate@wiger.org'
1548 You can also override the comparsion on an individual basis - see
1549 the huge section on L</"WHERE CLAUSES"> at the bottom.
1551 =item sqltrue, sqlfalse
1553 Expressions for inserting boolean values within SQL statements.
1554 By default these are C<1=1> and C<1=0>. They are used
1555 by the special operators C<-in> and C<-not_in> for generating
1556 correct SQL even when the argument is an empty array (see below).
1560 This determines the default logical operator for multiple WHERE
1561 statements in arrays or hashes. If absent, the default logic is "or"
1562 for arrays, and "and" for hashes. This means that a WHERE
1566 event_date => {'>=', '2/13/99'},
1567 event_date => {'<=', '4/24/03'},
1570 will generate SQL like this:
1572 WHERE event_date >= '2/13/99' OR event_date <= '4/24/03'
1574 This is probably not what you want given this query, though (look
1575 at the dates). To change the "OR" to an "AND", simply specify:
1577 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(logic => 'and');
1579 Which will change the above C<WHERE> to:
1581 WHERE event_date >= '2/13/99' AND event_date <= '4/24/03'
1583 The logic can also be changed locally by inserting
1584 a modifier in front of an arrayref :
1586 @where = (-and => [event_date => {'>=', '2/13/99'},
1587 event_date => {'<=', '4/24/03'} ]);
1589 See the L</"WHERE CLAUSES"> section for explanations.
1593 This will automatically convert comparisons using the specified SQL
1594 function for both column and value. This is mostly used with an argument
1595 of C<upper> or C<lower>, so that the SQL will have the effect of
1596 case-insensitive "searches". For example, this:
1598 $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(convert => 'upper');
1599 %where = (keywords => 'MaKe iT CAse inSeNSItive');
1601 Will turn out the following SQL:
1603 WHERE upper(keywords) like upper('MaKe iT CAse inSeNSItive')
1605 The conversion can be C<upper()>, C<lower()>, or any other SQL function
1606 that can be applied symmetrically to fields (actually B<SQL::Abstract> does
1607 not validate this option; it will just pass through what you specify verbatim).
1611 This is a kludge because many databases suck. For example, you can't
1612 just bind values using DBI's C<execute()> for Oracle C<CLOB> or C<BLOB> fields.
1613 Instead, you have to use C<bind_param()>:
1615 $sth->bind_param(1, 'reg data');
1616 $sth->bind_param(2, $lots, {ora_type => ORA_CLOB});
1618 The problem is, B<SQL::Abstract> will normally just return a C<@bind> array,
1619 which loses track of which field each slot refers to. Fear not.
1621 If you specify C<bindtype> in new, you can determine how C<@bind> is returned.
1622 Currently, you can specify either C<normal> (default) or C<columns>. If you
1623 specify C<columns>, you will get an array that looks like this:
1625 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(bindtype => 'columns');
1626 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert(...);
1629 [ 'column1', 'value1' ],
1630 [ 'column2', 'value2' ],
1631 [ 'column3', 'value3' ],
1634 You can then iterate through this manually, using DBI's C<bind_param()>.
1636 $sth->prepare($stmt);
1639 my($col, $data) = @$_;
1640 if ($col eq 'details' || $col eq 'comments') {
1641 $sth->bind_param($i, $data, {ora_type => ORA_CLOB});
1642 } elsif ($col eq 'image') {
1643 $sth->bind_param($i, $data, {ora_type => ORA_BLOB});
1645 $sth->bind_param($i, $data);
1649 $sth->execute; # execute without @bind now
1651 Now, why would you still use B<SQL::Abstract> if you have to do this crap?
1652 Basically, the advantage is still that you don't have to care which fields
1653 are or are not included. You could wrap that above C<for> loop in a simple
1654 sub called C<bind_fields()> or something and reuse it repeatedly. You still
1655 get a layer of abstraction over manual SQL specification.
1657 Note that if you set L</bindtype> to C<columns>, the C<\[$sql, @bind]>
1658 construct (see L</Literal SQL with placeholders and bind values (subqueries)>)
1659 will expect the bind values in this format.
1663 This is the character that a table or column name will be quoted
1664 with. By default this is an empty string, but you could set it to
1665 the character C<`>, to generate SQL like this:
1667 SELECT `a_field` FROM `a_table` WHERE `some_field` LIKE '%someval%'
1669 Alternatively, you can supply an array ref of two items, the first being the left
1670 hand quote character, and the second the right hand quote character. For
1671 example, you could supply C<['[',']']> for SQL Server 2000 compliant quotes
1672 that generates SQL like this:
1674 SELECT [a_field] FROM [a_table] WHERE [some_field] LIKE '%someval%'
1676 Quoting is useful if you have tables or columns names that are reserved
1677 words in your database's SQL dialect.
1681 This is the character that separates a table and column name. It is
1682 necessary to specify this when the C<quote_char> option is selected,
1683 so that tables and column names can be individually quoted like this:
1685 SELECT `table`.`one_field` FROM `table` WHERE `table`.`other_field` = 1
1687 =item array_datatypes
1689 When this option is true, arrayrefs in INSERT or UPDATE are
1690 interpreted as array datatypes and are passed directly
1692 When this option is false, arrayrefs are interpreted
1693 as literal SQL, just like refs to arrayrefs
1694 (but this behavior is for backwards compatibility; when writing
1695 new queries, use the "reference to arrayref" syntax
1701 Takes a reference to a list of "special operators"
1702 to extend the syntax understood by L<SQL::Abstract>.
1703 See section L</"SPECIAL OPERATORS"> for details.
1707 Takes a reference to a list of "unary operators"
1708 to extend the syntax understood by L<SQL::Abstract>.
1709 See section L</"UNARY OPERATORS"> for details.
1715 =head2 insert($table, \@values || \%fieldvals, \%options)
1717 This is the simplest function. You simply give it a table name
1718 and either an arrayref of values or hashref of field/value pairs.
1719 It returns an SQL INSERT statement and a list of bind values.
1720 See the sections on L</"Inserting and Updating Arrays"> and
1721 L</"Inserting and Updating SQL"> for information on how to insert
1722 with those data types.
1724 The optional C<\%options> hash reference may contain additional
1725 options to generate the insert SQL. Currently supported options
1732 Takes either a scalar of raw SQL fields, or an array reference of
1733 field names, and adds on an SQL C<RETURNING> statement at the end.
1734 This allows you to return data generated by the insert statement
1735 (such as row IDs) without performing another C<SELECT> statement.
1736 Note, however, this is not part of the SQL standard and may not
1737 be supported by all database engines.
1741 =head2 update($table, \%fieldvals, \%where)
1743 This takes a table, hashref of field/value pairs, and an optional
1744 hashref L<WHERE clause|/WHERE CLAUSES>. It returns an SQL UPDATE function and a list
1746 See the sections on L</"Inserting and Updating Arrays"> and
1747 L</"Inserting and Updating SQL"> for information on how to insert
1748 with those data types.
1750 =head2 select($source, $fields, $where, $order)
1752 This returns a SQL SELECT statement and associated list of bind values, as
1753 specified by the arguments :
1759 Specification of the 'FROM' part of the statement.
1760 The argument can be either a plain scalar (interpreted as a table
1761 name, will be quoted), or an arrayref (interpreted as a list
1762 of table names, joined by commas, quoted), or a scalarref
1763 (literal table name, not quoted), or a ref to an arrayref
1764 (list of literal table names, joined by commas, not quoted).
1768 Specification of the list of fields to retrieve from
1770 The argument can be either an arrayref (interpreted as a list
1771 of field names, will be joined by commas and quoted), or a
1772 plain scalar (literal SQL, not quoted).
1773 Please observe that this API is not as flexible as for
1774 the first argument C<$table>, for backwards compatibility reasons.
1778 Optional argument to specify the WHERE part of the query.
1779 The argument is most often a hashref, but can also be
1780 an arrayref or plain scalar --
1781 see section L<WHERE clause|/"WHERE CLAUSES"> for details.
1785 Optional argument to specify the ORDER BY part of the query.
1786 The argument can be a scalar, a hashref or an arrayref
1787 -- see section L<ORDER BY clause|/"ORDER BY CLAUSES">
1793 =head2 delete($table, \%where)
1795 This takes a table name and optional hashref L<WHERE clause|/WHERE CLAUSES>.
1796 It returns an SQL DELETE statement and list of bind values.
1798 =head2 where(\%where, \@order)
1800 This is used to generate just the WHERE clause. For example,
1801 if you have an arbitrary data structure and know what the
1802 rest of your SQL is going to look like, but want an easy way
1803 to produce a WHERE clause, use this. It returns an SQL WHERE
1804 clause and list of bind values.
1807 =head2 values(\%data)
1809 This just returns the values from the hash C<%data>, in the same
1810 order that would be returned from any of the other above queries.
1811 Using this allows you to markedly speed up your queries if you
1812 are affecting lots of rows. See below under the L</"PERFORMANCE"> section.
1814 =head2 generate($any, 'number', $of, \@data, $struct, \%types)
1816 Warning: This is an experimental method and subject to change.
1818 This returns arbitrarily generated SQL. It's a really basic shortcut.
1819 It will return two different things, depending on return context:
1821 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->generate('create table', \$table, \@fields);
1822 my $stmt_and_val = $sql->generate('create table', \$table, \@fields);
1824 These would return the following:
1826 # First calling form
1827 $stmt = "CREATE TABLE test (?, ?)";
1828 @bind = (field1, field2);
1830 # Second calling form
1831 $stmt_and_val = "CREATE TABLE test (field1, field2)";
1833 Depending on what you're trying to do, it's up to you to choose the correct
1834 format. In this example, the second form is what you would want.
1838 $sql->generate('alter session', { nls_date_format => 'MM/YY' });
1842 ALTER SESSION SET nls_date_format = 'MM/YY'
1844 You get the idea. Strings get their case twiddled, but everything
1845 else remains verbatim.
1850 =head1 WHERE CLAUSES
1854 This module uses a variation on the idea from L<DBIx::Abstract>. It
1855 is B<NOT>, repeat I<not> 100% compatible. B<The main logic of this
1856 module is that things in arrays are OR'ed, and things in hashes
1859 The easiest way to explain is to show lots of examples. After
1860 each C<%where> hash shown, it is assumed you used:
1862 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->where(\%where);
1864 However, note that the C<%where> hash can be used directly in any
1865 of the other functions as well, as described above.
1867 =head2 Key-value pairs
1869 So, let's get started. To begin, a simple hash:
1873 status => 'completed'
1876 Is converted to SQL C<key = val> statements:
1878 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND status = ?";
1879 @bind = ('nwiger', 'completed');
1881 One common thing I end up doing is having a list of values that
1882 a field can be in. To do this, simply specify a list inside of
1887 status => ['assigned', 'in-progress', 'pending'];
1890 This simple code will create the following:
1892 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND ( status = ? OR status = ? OR status = ? )";
1893 @bind = ('nwiger', 'assigned', 'in-progress', 'pending');
1895 A field associated to an empty arrayref will be considered a
1896 logical false and will generate 0=1.
1898 =head2 Specific comparison operators
1900 If you want to specify a different type of operator for your comparison,
1901 you can use a hashref for a given column:
1905 status => { '!=', 'completed' }
1908 Which would generate:
1910 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND status != ?";
1911 @bind = ('nwiger', 'completed');
1913 To test against multiple values, just enclose the values in an arrayref:
1915 status => { '=', ['assigned', 'in-progress', 'pending'] };
1917 Which would give you:
1919 "WHERE status = ? OR status = ? OR status = ?"
1922 The hashref can also contain multiple pairs, in which case it is expanded
1923 into an C<AND> of its elements:
1927 status => { '!=', 'completed', -not_like => 'pending%' }
1930 # Or more dynamically, like from a form
1931 $where{user} = 'nwiger';
1932 $where{status}{'!='} = 'completed';
1933 $where{status}{'-not_like'} = 'pending%';
1935 # Both generate this
1936 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND status != ? AND status NOT LIKE ?";
1937 @bind = ('nwiger', 'completed', 'pending%');
1940 To get an OR instead, you can combine it with the arrayref idea:
1944 priority => [ {'=', 2}, {'!=', 1} ]
1947 Which would generate:
1949 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND priority = ? OR priority != ?";
1950 @bind = ('nwiger', '2', '1');
1952 If you want to include literal SQL (with or without bind values), just use a
1953 scalar reference or array reference as the value:
1956 date_entered => { '>' => \["to_date(?, 'MM/DD/YYYY')", "11/26/2008"] },
1957 date_expires => { '<' => \"now()" }
1960 Which would generate:
1962 $stmt = "WHERE date_entered > "to_date(?, 'MM/DD/YYYY') AND date_expires < now()";
1963 @bind = ('11/26/2008');
1966 =head2 Logic and nesting operators
1968 In the example above,
1969 there is a subtle trap if you want to say something like
1970 this (notice the C<AND>):
1972 WHERE priority != ? AND priority != ?
1974 Because, in Perl you I<can't> do this:
1976 priority => { '!=', 2, '!=', 1 }
1978 As the second C<!=> key will obliterate the first. The solution
1979 is to use the special C<-modifier> form inside an arrayref:
1981 priority => [ -and => {'!=', 2},
1985 Normally, these would be joined by C<OR>, but the modifier tells it
1986 to use C<AND> instead. (Hint: You can use this in conjunction with the
1987 C<logic> option to C<new()> in order to change the way your queries
1988 work by default.) B<Important:> Note that the C<-modifier> goes
1989 B<INSIDE> the arrayref, as an extra first element. This will
1990 B<NOT> do what you think it might:
1992 priority => -and => [{'!=', 2}, {'!=', 1}] # WRONG!
1994 Here is a quick list of equivalencies, since there is some overlap:
1997 status => {'!=', 'completed', 'not like', 'pending%' }
1998 status => [ -and => {'!=', 'completed'}, {'not like', 'pending%'}]
2001 status => {'=', ['assigned', 'in-progress']}
2002 status => [ -or => {'=', 'assigned'}, {'=', 'in-progress'}]
2003 status => [ {'=', 'assigned'}, {'=', 'in-progress'} ]
2007 =head2 Special operators : IN, BETWEEN, etc.
2009 You can also use the hashref format to compare a list of fields using the
2010 C<IN> comparison operator, by specifying the list as an arrayref:
2013 status => 'completed',
2014 reportid => { -in => [567, 2335, 2] }
2017 Which would generate:
2019 $stmt = "WHERE status = ? AND reportid IN (?,?,?)";
2020 @bind = ('completed', '567', '2335', '2');
2022 The reverse operator C<-not_in> generates SQL C<NOT IN> and is used in
2025 If the argument to C<-in> is an empty array, 'sqlfalse' is generated
2026 (by default : C<1=0>). Similarly, C<< -not_in => [] >> generates
2027 'sqltrue' (by default : C<1=1>).
2029 In addition to the array you can supply a chunk of literal sql or
2030 literal sql with bind:
2033 customer => { -in => \[
2034 'SELECT cust_id FROM cust WHERE balance > ?',
2037 status => { -in => \'SELECT status_codes FROM states' },
2043 customer IN ( SELECT cust_id FROM cust WHERE balance > ? )
2044 AND status IN ( SELECT status_codes FROM states )
2050 Another pair of operators is C<-between> and C<-not_between>,
2051 used with an arrayref of two values:
2055 completion_date => {
2056 -not_between => ['2002-10-01', '2003-02-06']
2062 WHERE user = ? AND completion_date NOT BETWEEN ( ? AND ? )
2064 Just like with C<-in> all plausible combinations of literal SQL
2068 start0 => { -between => [ 1, 2 ] },
2069 start1 => { -between => \["? AND ?", 1, 2] },
2070 start2 => { -between => \"lower(x) AND upper(y)" },
2071 start3 => { -between => [
2073 \["upper(?)", 'stuff' ],
2080 ( start0 BETWEEN ? AND ? )
2081 AND ( start1 BETWEEN ? AND ? )
2082 AND ( start2 BETWEEN lower(x) AND upper(y) )
2083 AND ( start3 BETWEEN lower(x) AND upper(?) )
2085 @bind = (1, 2, 1, 2, 'stuff');
2088 These are the two builtin "special operators"; but the
2089 list can be expanded : see section L</"SPECIAL OPERATORS"> below.
2091 =head2 Unary operators: bool
2093 If you wish to test against boolean columns or functions within your
2094 database you can use the C<-bool> and C<-not_bool> operators. For
2095 example to test the column C<is_user> being true and the column
2096 <is_enabled> being false you would use:-
2100 -not_bool => 'is_enabled',
2105 WHERE is_user AND NOT is_enabled
2107 If a more complex combination is required, testing more conditions,
2108 then you should use the and/or operators:-
2115 -not_bool => 'four',
2121 WHERE one AND two AND three AND NOT four
2124 =head2 Nested conditions, -and/-or prefixes
2126 So far, we've seen how multiple conditions are joined with a top-level
2127 C<AND>. We can change this by putting the different conditions we want in
2128 hashes and then putting those hashes in an array. For example:
2133 status => { -like => ['pending%', 'dispatched'] },
2137 status => 'unassigned',
2141 This data structure would create the following:
2143 $stmt = "WHERE ( user = ? AND ( status LIKE ? OR status LIKE ? ) )
2144 OR ( user = ? AND status = ? ) )";
2145 @bind = ('nwiger', 'pending', 'dispatched', 'robot', 'unassigned');
2148 There is also a special C<-nest>
2149 operator which adds an additional set of parens, to create a subquery.
2150 For example, to get something like this:
2152 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND ( workhrs > ? OR geo = ? )";
2153 @bind = ('nwiger', '20', 'ASIA');
2159 -nest => [ workhrs => {'>', 20}, geo => 'ASIA' ],
2163 Finally, clauses in hashrefs or arrayrefs can be
2164 prefixed with an C<-and> or C<-or> to change the logic
2171 -and => [workhrs => {'>', 20}, geo => 'ASIA' ],
2172 -and => [workhrs => {'<', 50}, geo => 'EURO' ]
2179 WHERE ( user = ? AND
2180 ( ( workhrs > ? AND geo = ? )
2181 OR ( workhrs < ? AND geo = ? ) ) )
2184 =head2 Algebraic inconsistency, for historical reasons
2186 C<Important note>: when connecting several conditions, the C<-and->|C<-or>
2187 operator goes C<outside> of the nested structure; whereas when connecting
2188 several constraints on one column, the C<-and> operator goes
2189 C<inside> the arrayref. Here is an example combining both features :
2192 -and => [a => 1, b => 2],
2193 -or => [c => 3, d => 4],
2194 e => [-and => {-like => 'foo%'}, {-like => '%bar'} ]
2199 WHERE ( ( ( a = ? AND b = ? )
2200 OR ( c = ? OR d = ? )
2201 OR ( e LIKE ? AND e LIKE ? ) ) )
2203 This difference in syntax is unfortunate but must be preserved for
2204 historical reasons. So be careful : the two examples below would
2205 seem algebraically equivalent, but they are not
2207 {col => [-and => {-like => 'foo%'}, {-like => '%bar'}]}
2208 # yields : WHERE ( ( col LIKE ? AND col LIKE ? ) )
2210 [-and => {col => {-like => 'foo%'}, {col => {-like => '%bar'}}]]
2211 # yields : WHERE ( ( col LIKE ? OR col LIKE ? ) )
2216 Finally, sometimes only literal SQL will do. If you want to include
2217 literal SQL verbatim, you can specify it as a scalar reference, namely:
2219 my $inn = 'is Not Null';
2221 priority => { '<', 2 },
2227 $stmt = "WHERE priority < ? AND requestor is Not Null";
2230 Note that in this example, you only get one bind parameter back, since
2231 the verbatim SQL is passed as part of the statement.
2233 Of course, just to prove a point, the above can also be accomplished
2237 priority => { '<', 2 },
2238 requestor => { '!=', undef },
2244 Conditions on boolean columns can be expressed in the same way, passing
2245 a reference to an empty string, however using liternal SQL in this way
2246 is deprecated - the preferred method is to use the boolean operators -
2247 see L</"Unary operators: bool"> :
2250 priority => { '<', 2 },
2256 $stmt = "WHERE priority < ? AND is_ready";
2260 =head2 Literal SQL with placeholders and bind values (subqueries)
2262 If the literal SQL to be inserted has placeholders and bind values,
2263 use a reference to an arrayref (yes this is a double reference --
2264 not so common, but perfectly legal Perl). For example, to find a date
2265 in Postgres you can use something like this:
2268 date_column => \[q/= date '2008-09-30' - ?::integer/, 10/]
2273 $stmt = "WHERE ( date_column = date '2008-09-30' - ?::integer )"
2276 Note that you must pass the bind values in the same format as they are returned
2277 by L</where>. That means that if you set L</bindtype> to C<columns>, you must
2278 provide the bind values in the C<< [ column_meta => value ] >> format, where
2279 C<column_meta> is an opaque scalar value; most commonly the column name, but
2280 you can use any scalar value (including references and blessed references),
2281 L<SQL::Abstract> will simply pass it through intact. So if C<bindtype> is set
2282 to C<columns> the above example will look like:
2285 date_column => \[q/= date '2008-09-30' - ?::integer/, [ dummy => 10 ]/]
2288 Literal SQL is especially useful for nesting parenthesized clauses in the
2289 main SQL query. Here is a first example :
2291 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind) = ("SELECT c1 FROM t1 WHERE c2 < ? AND c3 LIKE ?",
2295 bar => \["IN ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
2300 $stmt = "WHERE (foo = ? AND bar IN (SELECT c1 FROM t1
2301 WHERE c2 < ? AND c3 LIKE ?))";
2302 @bind = (1234, 100, "foo%");
2304 Other subquery operators, like for example C<"E<gt> ALL"> or C<"NOT IN">,
2305 are expressed in the same way. Of course the C<$sub_stmt> and
2306 its associated bind values can be generated through a former call
2309 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind)
2310 = $sql->select("t1", "c1", {c2 => {"<" => 100},
2311 c3 => {-like => "foo%"}});
2314 bar => \["> ALL ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
2317 In the examples above, the subquery was used as an operator on a column;
2318 but the same principle also applies for a clause within the main C<%where>
2319 hash, like an EXISTS subquery :
2321 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind)
2322 = $sql->select("t1", "*", {c1 => 1, c2 => \"> t0.c0"});
2325 -nest => \["EXISTS ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
2330 $stmt = "WHERE (foo = ? AND EXISTS (SELECT * FROM t1
2331 WHERE c1 = ? AND c2 > t0.c0))";
2335 Observe that the condition on C<c2> in the subquery refers to
2336 column C<t0.c0> of the main query : this is I<not> a bind
2337 value, so we have to express it through a scalar ref.
2338 Writing C<< c2 => {">" => "t0.c0"} >> would have generated
2339 C<< c2 > ? >> with bind value C<"t0.c0"> ... not exactly
2340 what we wanted here.
2342 Another use of the subquery technique is when some SQL clauses need
2343 parentheses, as it often occurs with some proprietary SQL extensions
2344 like for example fulltext expressions, geospatial expressions,
2345 NATIVE clauses, etc. Here is an example of a fulltext query in MySQL :
2348 -nest => \["MATCH (col1, col2) AGAINST (?)" => qw/apples/]
2351 Finally, here is an example where a subquery is used
2352 for expressing unary negation:
2354 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind)
2355 = $sql->where({age => [{"<" => 10}, {">" => 20}]});
2356 $sub_stmt =~ s/^ where //i; # don't want "WHERE" in the subclause
2358 lname => {like => '%son%'},
2359 -nest => \["NOT ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
2364 $stmt = "lname LIKE ? AND NOT ( age < ? OR age > ? )"
2365 @bind = ('%son%', 10, 20)
2371 These pages could go on for a while, since the nesting of the data
2372 structures this module can handle are pretty much unlimited (the
2373 module implements the C<WHERE> expansion as a recursive function
2374 internally). Your best bet is to "play around" with the module a
2375 little to see how the data structures behave, and choose the best
2376 format for your data based on that.
2378 And of course, all the values above will probably be replaced with
2379 variables gotten from forms or the command line. After all, if you
2380 knew everything ahead of time, you wouldn't have to worry about
2381 dynamically-generating SQL and could just hardwire it into your
2387 =head1 ORDER BY CLAUSES
2389 Some functions take an order by clause. This can either be a scalar (just a
2390 column name,) a hash of C<< { -desc => 'col' } >> or C<< { -asc => 'col' } >>,
2391 or an array of either of the two previous forms. Examples:
2393 Given | Will Generate
2394 ----------------------------------------------------------
2396 \'colA DESC' | ORDER BY colA DESC
2398 'colA' | ORDER BY colA
2400 [qw/colA colB/] | ORDER BY colA, colB
2402 {-asc => 'colA'} | ORDER BY colA ASC
2404 {-desc => 'colB'} | ORDER BY colB DESC
2406 ['colA', {-asc => 'colB'}] | ORDER BY colA, colB ASC
2408 { -asc => [qw/colA colB/] } | ORDER BY colA ASC, colB ASC
2411 { -asc => 'colA' }, | ORDER BY colA ASC, colB DESC,
2412 { -desc => [qw/colB/], | colC ASC, colD ASC
2413 { -asc => [qw/colC colD/],|
2415 ===========================================================
2419 =head1 SPECIAL OPERATORS
2421 my $sqlmaker = SQL::Abstract->new(special_ops => [
2425 my ($self, $field, $op, $arg) = @_;
2431 handler => 'method_name',
2435 A "special operator" is a SQL syntactic clause that can be
2436 applied to a field, instead of a usual binary operator.
2439 WHERE field IN (?, ?, ?)
2440 WHERE field BETWEEN ? AND ?
2441 WHERE MATCH(field) AGAINST (?, ?)
2443 Special operators IN and BETWEEN are fairly standard and therefore
2444 are builtin within C<SQL::Abstract> (as the overridable methods
2445 C<_where_field_IN> and C<_where_field_BETWEEN>). For other operators,
2446 like the MATCH .. AGAINST example above which is specific to MySQL,
2447 you can write your own operator handlers - supply a C<special_ops>
2448 argument to the C<new> method. That argument takes an arrayref of
2449 operator definitions; each operator definition is a hashref with two
2456 the regular expression to match the operator
2460 Either a coderef or a plain scalar method name. In both cases
2461 the expected return is C<< ($sql, @bind) >>.
2463 When supplied with a method name, it is simply called on the
2464 L<SQL::Abstract/> object as:
2466 $self->$method_name ($field, $op, $arg)
2470 $op is the part that matched the handler regex
2471 $field is the LHS of the operator
2474 When supplied with a coderef, it is called as:
2476 $coderef->($self, $field, $op, $arg)
2481 For example, here is an implementation
2482 of the MATCH .. AGAINST syntax for MySQL
2484 my $sqlmaker = SQL::Abstract->new(special_ops => [
2486 # special op for MySql MATCH (field) AGAINST(word1, word2, ...)
2487 {regex => qr/^match$/i,
2489 my ($self, $field, $op, $arg) = @_;
2490 $arg = [$arg] if not ref $arg;
2491 my $label = $self->_quote($field);
2492 my ($placeholder) = $self->_convert('?');
2493 my $placeholders = join ", ", (($placeholder) x @$arg);
2494 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('match') . " ($label) "
2495 . $self->_sqlcase('against') . " ($placeholders) ";
2496 my @bind = $self->_bindtype($field, @$arg);
2497 return ($sql, @bind);
2504 =head1 UNARY OPERATORS
2506 my $sqlmaker = SQL::Abstract->new(unary_ops => [
2510 my ($self, $op, $arg) = @_;
2516 handler => 'method_name',
2520 A "unary operator" is a SQL syntactic clause that can be
2521 applied to a field - the operator goes before the field
2523 You can write your own operator handlers - supply a C<unary_ops>
2524 argument to the C<new> method. That argument takes an arrayref of
2525 operator definitions; each operator definition is a hashref with two
2532 the regular expression to match the operator
2536 Either a coderef or a plain scalar method name. In both cases
2537 the expected return is C<< $sql >>.
2539 When supplied with a method name, it is simply called on the
2540 L<SQL::Abstract/> object as:
2542 $self->$method_name ($op, $arg)
2546 $op is the part that matched the handler regex
2547 $arg is the RHS or argument of the operator
2549 When supplied with a coderef, it is called as:
2551 $coderef->($self, $op, $arg)
2559 Thanks to some benchmarking by Mark Stosberg, it turns out that
2560 this module is many orders of magnitude faster than using C<DBIx::Abstract>.
2561 I must admit this wasn't an intentional design issue, but it's a
2562 byproduct of the fact that you get to control your C<DBI> handles
2565 To maximize performance, use a code snippet like the following:
2567 # prepare a statement handle using the first row
2568 # and then reuse it for the rest of the rows
2570 for my $href (@array_of_hashrefs) {
2571 $stmt ||= $sql->insert('table', $href);
2572 $sth ||= $dbh->prepare($stmt);
2573 $sth->execute($sql->values($href));
2576 The reason this works is because the keys in your C<$href> are sorted
2577 internally by B<SQL::Abstract>. Thus, as long as your data retains
2578 the same structure, you only have to generate the SQL the first time
2579 around. On subsequent queries, simply use the C<values> function provided
2580 by this module to return your values in the correct order.
2585 If you use my C<CGI::FormBuilder> module at all, you'll hopefully
2586 really like this part (I do, at least). Building up a complex query
2587 can be as simple as the following:
2591 use CGI::FormBuilder;
2594 my $form = CGI::FormBuilder->new(...);
2595 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new;
2597 if ($form->submitted) {
2598 my $field = $form->field;
2599 my $id = delete $field->{id};
2600 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->update('table', $field, {id => $id});
2603 Of course, you would still have to connect using C<DBI> to run the
2604 query, but the point is that if you make your form look like your
2605 table, the actual query script can be extremely simplistic.
2607 If you're B<REALLY> lazy (I am), check out C<HTML::QuickTable> for
2608 a fast interface to returning and formatting data. I frequently
2609 use these three modules together to write complex database query
2610 apps in under 50 lines.
2615 Version 1.50 was a major internal refactoring of C<SQL::Abstract>.
2616 Great care has been taken to preserve the I<published> behavior
2617 documented in previous versions in the 1.* family; however,
2618 some features that were previously undocumented, or behaved
2619 differently from the documentation, had to be changed in order
2620 to clarify the semantics. Hence, client code that was relying
2621 on some dark areas of C<SQL::Abstract> v1.*
2622 B<might behave differently> in v1.50.
2624 The main changes are :
2630 support for literal SQL through the C<< \ [$sql, bind] >> syntax.
2634 support for the { operator => \"..." } construct (to embed literal SQL)
2638 support for the { operator => \["...", @bind] } construct (to embed literal SQL with bind values)
2642 optional support for L<array datatypes|/"Inserting and Updating Arrays">
2646 defensive programming : check arguments
2650 fixed bug with global logic, which was previously implemented
2651 through global variables yielding side-effects. Prior versions would
2652 interpret C<< [ {cond1, cond2}, [cond3, cond4] ] >>
2653 as C<< "(cond1 AND cond2) OR (cond3 AND cond4)" >>.
2654 Now this is interpreted
2655 as C<< "(cond1 AND cond2) OR (cond3 OR cond4)" >>.
2660 fixed semantics of _bindtype on array args
2664 dropped the C<_anoncopy> of the %where tree. No longer necessary,
2665 we just avoid shifting arrays within that tree.
2669 dropped the C<_modlogic> function
2675 =head1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
2677 There are a number of individuals that have really helped out with
2678 this module. Unfortunately, most of them submitted bugs via CPAN
2679 so I have no idea who they are! But the people I do know are:
2681 Ash Berlin (order_by hash term support)
2682 Matt Trout (DBIx::Class support)
2683 Mark Stosberg (benchmarking)
2684 Chas Owens (initial "IN" operator support)
2685 Philip Collins (per-field SQL functions)
2686 Eric Kolve (hashref "AND" support)
2687 Mike Fragassi (enhancements to "BETWEEN" and "LIKE")
2688 Dan Kubb (support for "quote_char" and "name_sep")
2689 Guillermo Roditi (patch to cleanup "IN" and "BETWEEN", fix and tests for _order_by)
2690 Laurent Dami (internal refactoring, multiple -nest, extensible list of special operators, literal SQL)
2691 Norbert Buchmuller (support for literal SQL in hashpair, misc. fixes & tests)
2692 Peter Rabbitson (rewrite of SQLA::Test, misc. fixes & tests)
2693 Oliver Charles (support for "RETURNING" after "INSERT")
2699 L<DBIx::Class>, L<DBIx::Abstract>, L<CGI::FormBuilder>, L<HTML::QuickTable>.
2703 Copyright (c) 2001-2007 Nathan Wiger <nwiger@cpan.org>. All Rights Reserved.
2705 This module is actively maintained by Matt Trout <mst@shadowcatsystems.co.uk>
2707 For support, your best bet is to try the C<DBIx::Class> users mailing list.
2708 While not an official support venue, C<DBIx::Class> makes heavy use of
2709 C<SQL::Abstract>, and as such list members there are very familiar with
2710 how to create queries.
2714 This module is free software; you may copy this under the same
2715 terms as perl itself (either the GNU General Public License or
2716 the Artistic License)