1 package SQL::Abstract; # see doc at end of file
10 our @EXPORT_OK = qw(is_plain_value is_literal_value);
20 *SQL::Abstract::_ENV_::DETECT_AUTOGENERATED_STRINGIFICATION = $ENV{SQLA_ISVALUE_IGNORE_AUTOGENERATED_STRINGIFICATION}
26 #======================================================================
28 #======================================================================
30 our $VERSION = '1.86';
32 # This would confuse some packagers
33 $VERSION = eval $VERSION if $VERSION =~ /_/; # numify for warning-free dev releases
37 # special operators (-in, -between). May be extended/overridden by user.
38 # See section WHERE: BUILTIN SPECIAL OPERATORS below for implementation
39 my @BUILTIN_SPECIAL_OPS = (
40 {regex => qr/^ (?: not \s )? between $/ix, handler => '_where_field_BETWEEN'},
41 {regex => qr/^ (?: not \s )? in $/ix, handler => '_where_field_IN'},
42 {regex => qr/^ ident $/ix, handler => '_where_op_IDENT'},
43 {regex => qr/^ value $/ix, handler => '_where_op_VALUE'},
44 {regex => qr/^ is (?: \s+ not )? $/ix, handler => '_where_field_IS'},
47 # unaryish operators - key maps to handler
48 my @BUILTIN_UNARY_OPS = (
49 # the digits are backcompat stuff
50 { regex => qr/^ and (?: [_\s]? \d+ )? $/xi, handler => '_where_op_ANDOR' },
51 { regex => qr/^ or (?: [_\s]? \d+ )? $/xi, handler => '_where_op_ANDOR' },
52 { regex => qr/^ nest (?: [_\s]? \d+ )? $/xi, handler => '_where_op_NEST' },
53 { regex => qr/^ (?: not \s )? bool $/xi, handler => '_where_op_BOOL' },
54 { regex => qr/^ ident $/xi, handler => '_where_op_IDENT' },
55 { regex => qr/^ value $/xi, handler => '_where_op_VALUE' },
56 { regex => qr/^ op $/xi, handler => '_where_op_OP' },
57 { regex => qr/^ bind $/xi, handler => '_where_op_BIND' },
58 { regex => qr/^ literal $/xi, handler => '_where_op_LITERAL' },
61 #======================================================================
62 # DEBUGGING AND ERROR REPORTING
63 #======================================================================
66 return unless $_[0]->{debug}; shift; # a little faster
67 my $func = (caller(1))[3];
68 warn "[$func] ", @_, "\n";
72 my($func) = (caller(1))[3];
73 Carp::carp "[$func] Warning: ", @_;
77 my($func) = (caller(1))[3];
78 Carp::croak "[$func] Fatal: ", @_;
81 sub is_literal_value ($) {
82 ref $_[0] eq 'SCALAR' ? [ ${$_[0]} ]
83 : ( ref $_[0] eq 'REF' and ref ${$_[0]} eq 'ARRAY' ) ? [ @${ $_[0] } ]
87 # FIXME XSify - this can be done so much more efficiently
88 sub is_plain_value ($) {
90 ! length ref $_[0] ? \($_[0])
92 ref $_[0] eq 'HASH' and keys %{$_[0]} == 1
94 exists $_[0]->{-value}
95 ) ? \($_[0]->{-value})
97 # reuse @_ for even moar speedz
98 defined ( $_[1] = Scalar::Util::blessed $_[0] )
100 # deliberately not using Devel::OverloadInfo - the checks we are
101 # intersted in are much more limited than the fullblown thing, and
102 # this is a very hot piece of code
104 # simply using ->can('(""') can leave behind stub methods that
105 # break actually using the overload later (see L<perldiag/Stub
106 # found while resolving method "%s" overloading "%s" in package
107 # "%s"> and the source of overload::mycan())
109 # either has stringification which DBI SHOULD prefer out of the box
110 grep { *{ (qq[${_}::(""]) }{CODE} } @{ $_[2] = mro::get_linear_isa( $_[1] ) }
112 # has nummification or boolification, AND fallback is *not* disabled
114 SQL::Abstract::_ENV_::DETECT_AUTOGENERATED_STRINGIFICATION
117 grep { *{"${_}::(0+"}{CODE} } @{$_[2]}
119 grep { *{"${_}::(bool"}{CODE} } @{$_[2]}
123 # no fallback specified at all
124 ! ( ($_[3]) = grep { *{"${_}::()"}{CODE} } @{$_[2]} )
126 # fallback explicitly undef
127 ! defined ${"$_[3]::()"}
140 #======================================================================
142 #======================================================================
146 my $class = ref($self) || $self;
147 my %opt = (ref $_[0] eq 'HASH') ? %{$_[0]} : @_;
149 # choose our case by keeping an option around
150 delete $opt{case} if $opt{case} && $opt{case} ne 'lower';
152 # default logic for interpreting arrayrefs
153 $opt{logic} = $opt{logic} ? uc $opt{logic} : 'OR';
155 # how to return bind vars
156 $opt{bindtype} ||= 'normal';
158 # default comparison is "=", but can be overridden
161 # try to recognize which are the 'equality' and 'inequality' ops
162 # (temporary quickfix (in 2007), should go through a more seasoned API)
163 $opt{equality_op} = qr/^( \Q$opt{cmp}\E | \= )$/ix;
164 $opt{inequality_op} = qr/^( != | <> )$/ix;
166 $opt{like_op} = qr/^ (is\s+)? r?like $/xi;
167 $opt{not_like_op} = qr/^ (is\s+)? not \s+ r?like $/xi;
170 $opt{sqltrue} ||= '1=1';
171 $opt{sqlfalse} ||= '0=1';
174 $opt{special_ops} ||= [];
175 # regexes are applied in order, thus push after user-defines
176 push @{$opt{special_ops}}, @BUILTIN_SPECIAL_OPS;
179 $opt{unary_ops} ||= [];
180 push @{$opt{unary_ops}}, @BUILTIN_UNARY_OPS;
182 # rudimentary sanity-check for user supplied bits treated as functions/operators
183 # If a purported function matches this regular expression, an exception is thrown.
184 # Literal SQL is *NOT* subject to this check, only functions (and column names
185 # when quoting is not in effect)
188 # need to guard against ()'s in column names too, but this will break tons of
189 # hacks... ideas anyone?
190 $opt{injection_guard} ||= qr/
196 return bless \%opt, $class;
200 sub _assert_pass_injection_guard {
201 if ($_[1] =~ $_[0]->{injection_guard}) {
202 my $class = ref $_[0];
203 puke "Possible SQL injection attempt '$_[1]'. If this is indeed a part of the "
204 . "desired SQL use literal SQL ( \'...' or \[ '...' ] ) or supply your own "
205 . "{injection_guard} attribute to ${class}->new()"
210 #======================================================================
212 #======================================================================
216 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
217 my $data = shift || return;
220 my $method = $self->_METHOD_FOR_refkind("_insert", $data);
221 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->$method($data);
222 $sql = join " ", $self->_sqlcase('insert into'), $table, $sql;
224 if ($options->{returning}) {
225 my ($s, @b) = $self->_insert_returning($options);
230 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
233 # So that subclasses can override INSERT ... RETURNING separately from
234 # UPDATE and DELETE (e.g. DBIx::Class::SQLMaker::Oracle does this)
235 sub _insert_returning { shift->_returning(@_) }
238 my ($self, $options) = @_;
240 my $f = $options->{returning};
242 my $fieldlist = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($f, {
243 ARRAYREF => sub {join ', ', map { $self->_quote($_) } @$f;},
244 SCALAR => sub {$self->_quote($f)},
245 SCALARREF => sub {$$f},
247 return $self->_sqlcase(' returning ') . $fieldlist;
250 sub _insert_HASHREF { # explicit list of fields and then values
251 my ($self, $data) = @_;
253 my @fields = sort keys %$data;
255 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_insert_values($data);
258 $_ = $self->_quote($_) foreach @fields;
259 $sql = "( ".join(", ", @fields).") ".$sql;
261 return ($sql, @bind);
264 sub _insert_ARRAYREF { # just generate values(?,?) part (no list of fields)
265 my ($self, $data) = @_;
267 # no names (arrayref) so can't generate bindtype
268 $self->{bindtype} ne 'columns'
269 or belch "can't do 'columns' bindtype when called with arrayref";
271 my (@values, @all_bind);
272 foreach my $value (@$data) {
273 my ($values, @bind) = $self->_insert_value(undef, $value);
274 push @values, $values;
275 push @all_bind, @bind;
277 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('values')." ( ".join(", ", @values)." )";
278 return ($sql, @all_bind);
281 sub _insert_ARRAYREFREF { # literal SQL with bind
282 my ($self, $data) = @_;
284 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$data};
285 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
287 return ($sql, @bind);
291 sub _insert_SCALARREF { # literal SQL without bind
292 my ($self, $data) = @_;
298 my ($self, $data) = @_;
300 my (@values, @all_bind);
301 foreach my $column (sort keys %$data) {
302 my ($values, @bind) = $self->_insert_value($column, $data->{$column});
303 push @values, $values;
304 push @all_bind, @bind;
306 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('values')." ( ".join(", ", @values)." )";
307 return ($sql, @all_bind);
311 my ($self, $column, $v) = @_;
313 my (@values, @all_bind);
314 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
317 if ($self->{array_datatypes}) { # if array datatype are activated
319 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($column, $v);
321 else { # else literal SQL with bind
322 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
323 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
325 push @all_bind, @bind;
329 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
330 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$v};
331 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
333 push @all_bind, @bind;
336 # THINK: anything useful to do with a HASHREF ?
337 HASHREF => sub { # (nothing, but old SQLA passed it through)
338 #TODO in SQLA >= 2.0 it will die instead
339 belch "HASH ref as bind value in insert is not supported";
341 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($column, $v);
344 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL without bind
348 SCALAR_or_UNDEF => sub {
350 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($column, $v);
355 my $sql = join(", ", @values);
356 return ($sql, @all_bind);
361 #======================================================================
363 #======================================================================
368 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
369 my $data = shift || return;
373 # first build the 'SET' part of the sql statement
374 puke "Unsupported data type specified to \$sql->update"
375 unless ref $data eq 'HASH';
377 my ($sql, @all_bind) = $self->_update_set_values($data);
378 $sql = $self->_sqlcase('update ') . $table . $self->_sqlcase(' set ')
382 my($where_sql, @where_bind) = $self->where($where);
384 push @all_bind, @where_bind;
387 if ($options->{returning}) {
388 my ($returning_sql, @returning_bind) = $self->_update_returning($options);
389 $sql .= $returning_sql;
390 push @all_bind, @returning_bind;
393 return wantarray ? ($sql, @all_bind) : $sql;
396 sub _update_set_values {
397 my ($self, $data) = @_;
399 my (@set, @all_bind);
400 for my $k (sort keys %$data) {
403 my $label = $self->_quote($k);
405 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
407 if ($self->{array_datatypes}) { # array datatype
408 push @set, "$label = ?";
409 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
411 else { # literal SQL with bind
412 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
413 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
414 push @set, "$label = $sql";
415 push @all_bind, @bind;
418 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
419 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$v};
420 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
421 push @set, "$label = $sql";
422 push @all_bind, @bind;
424 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL without bind
425 push @set, "$label = $$v";
428 my ($op, $arg, @rest) = %$v;
430 puke 'Operator calls in update must be in the form { -op => $arg }'
431 if (@rest or not $op =~ /^\-(.+)/);
433 local $self->{_nested_func_lhs} = $k;
434 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_where_unary_op($1, $arg);
436 push @set, "$label = $sql";
437 push @all_bind, @bind;
439 SCALAR_or_UNDEF => sub {
440 push @set, "$label = ?";
441 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
447 my $sql = join ', ', @set;
449 return ($sql, @all_bind);
452 # So that subclasses can override UPDATE ... RETURNING separately from
454 sub _update_returning { shift->_returning(@_) }
458 #======================================================================
460 #======================================================================
465 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
466 my $fields = shift || '*';
470 my ($fields_sql, @bind) = $self->_select_fields($fields);
472 my ($where_sql, @where_bind) = $self->where($where, $order);
473 push @bind, @where_bind;
475 my $sql = join(' ', $self->_sqlcase('select'), $fields_sql,
476 $self->_sqlcase('from'), $table)
479 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
483 my ($self, $fields) = @_;
484 return ref $fields eq 'ARRAY' ? join ', ', map { $self->_quote($_) } @$fields
488 #======================================================================
490 #======================================================================
495 my $table = $self->_table(shift);
499 my($where_sql, @bind) = $self->where($where);
500 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('delete from ') . $table . $where_sql;
502 if ($options->{returning}) {
503 my ($returning_sql, @returning_bind) = $self->_delete_returning($options);
504 $sql .= $returning_sql;
505 push @bind, @returning_bind;
508 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
511 # So that subclasses can override DELETE ... RETURNING separately from
513 sub _delete_returning { shift->_returning(@_) }
517 #======================================================================
519 #======================================================================
523 # Finally, a separate routine just to handle WHERE clauses
525 my ($self, $where, $order) = @_;
528 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_recurse_where($where);
529 $sql = (defined $sql and length $sql) ? $self->_sqlcase(' where ') . "( $sql )" : '';
533 my ($order_sql, @order_bind) = $self->_order_by($order);
535 push @bind, @order_bind;
538 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
542 my ($self, $expr, $logic) = @_;
543 if (ref($expr) eq 'HASH') {
544 if (keys %$expr > 1) {
546 return +{ "-${logic}" => [
547 map $self->_expand_expr_hashpair($_ => $expr->{$_}, $logic),
551 return $self->_expand_expr_hashpair(%$expr, $logic);
553 if (ref($expr) eq 'ARRAY') {
554 $logic = lc($logic || $self->{logic});
555 $logic eq 'and' or $logic eq 'or' or puke "unknown logic: $logic";
561 while (my ($el) = splice @expr, 0, 1) {
562 puke "Supplying an empty left hand side argument is not supported in array-pairs"
563 unless defined($el) and length($el);
564 my $elref = ref($el);
566 push(@res, $self->_expand_expr({ $el, shift(@expr) }));
567 } elsif ($elref eq 'ARRAY') {
568 push(@res, $self->_expand_expr($el)) if @$el;
569 } elsif (is_literal_value($el)) {
571 } elsif ($elref eq 'HASH') {
572 push @res, $self->_expand_expr($el);
577 return { '-'.$logic => \@res };
579 if (my $literal = is_literal_value($expr)) {
580 return +{ -literal => $literal };
585 sub _expand_expr_hashpair {
586 my ($self, $k, $v, $logic) = @_;
587 unless (defined($k) and length($k)) {
588 if (defined($k) and my $literal = is_literal_value($v)) {
589 belch 'Hash-pairs consisting of an empty string with a literal are deprecated, and will be removed in 2.0: use -and => [ $literal ] instead';
590 return { -literal => $literal };
592 puke "Supplying an empty left hand side argument is not supported";
596 return $self->_expand_expr($v);
600 return $self->_expand_expr($v);
602 puke "-bool => undef not supported" unless defined($v);
603 return { -ident => $v };
605 if (my ($rest) = $k =~/^-not[_ ](.*)$/) {
606 return $self->_expand_expr({ -not => { "-${rest}", $v } }, $logic);
608 if (my ($logic) = $k =~ /^-(and|or)$/) {
609 if (ref($v) eq 'HASH') {
610 return $self->_expand_expr($v, $logic);
614 unless (defined($v)) {
615 my $orig_op = my $op = $self->{cmp};
617 $op =~ /^not$/i ? 'is not' # legacy
618 : $op =~ $self->{equality_op} ? 'is'
619 : $op =~ $self->{like_op} ? belch("Supplying an undefined argument to '@{[ uc $op]}' is deprecated") && 'is'
620 : $op =~ $self->{inequality_op} ? 'is not'
621 : $op =~ $self->{not_like_op} ? belch("Supplying an undefined argument to '@{[ uc $op]}' is deprecated") && 'is not'
622 : puke "unexpected operator '$orig_op' with undef operand";
623 return +{ -op => [ $is.' null', { -ident => $k } ] };
630 { -bind => [ $k, $v ] }
634 if (ref($v) eq 'HASH') {
637 map $self->_expand_expr_hashpair($k => { $_ => $v->{$_} }),
643 if ($vk =~ /^(?:not[ _])?between$/) {
644 my @rhs = map $self->_expand_expr($_),
645 ref($vv) eq 'ARRAY' ? @$vv : $vv;
647 (@rhs == 1 and ref($rhs[0]) eq 'HASH' and $rhs[0]->{-literal})
649 (@rhs == 2 and defined($rhs[0]) and defined($rhs[1]))
651 puke "Operator '${\uc($vk)}' requires either an arrayref with two defined values or expressions, or a single literal scalarref/arrayref-ref";
654 $vk, { -ident => $k },
656 my $v = ref($_) ? $_->{-value} :$_;
657 ($v ? { -bind => [ $k, $v ] } : $_)
662 if (ref($v) eq 'ARRAY') {
663 return $self->{sqlfalse} unless @$v;
664 $self->_debug("ARRAY($k) means distribute over elements");
666 $v->[0] =~ /^-((?:and|or))$/i
667 ? ($v = [ @{$v}[1..$#$v] ], $1)
668 : ($self->{logic} || 'or')
670 return +{ "-${this_logic}" => [ map $self->_expand_expr({ $k => $_ }, $this_logic), @$v ] };
672 if (my $literal = is_literal_value($v)) {
674 belch 'Hash-pairs consisting of an empty string with a literal are deprecated, and will be removed in 2.0: use -and => [ $literal ] instead';
677 my ($sql, @bind) = @$literal;
678 if ($self->{bindtype} eq 'columns') {
680 if (!defined $_ || ref($_) ne 'ARRAY' || @$_ != 2) {
681 puke "bindtype 'columns' selected, you need to pass: [column_name => bind_value]"
685 return +{ -literal => [ $self->_quote($k).' '.$sql, @bind ] };
692 my ($self, $where, $logic) = @_;
694 my $where_exp = $self->_expand_expr($where, $logic);
696 # dispatch on appropriate method according to refkind of $where
697 my $method = $self->_METHOD_FOR_refkind("_where", $where_exp);
699 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->$method($where_exp, $logic);
701 # DBIx::Class used to call _recurse_where in scalar context
702 # something else might too...
704 return ($sql, @bind);
707 belch "Calling _recurse_where in scalar context is deprecated and will go away before 2.0";
714 #======================================================================
715 # WHERE: top-level ARRAYREF
716 #======================================================================
719 sub _where_ARRAYREF {
720 my ($self, $where, $logic) = @_;
722 $logic = uc($logic || $self->{logic});
723 $logic eq 'AND' or $logic eq 'OR' or puke "unknown logic: $logic";
725 my @clauses = @$where;
727 my (@sql_clauses, @all_bind);
728 # need to use while() so can shift() for pairs
730 my $el = shift @clauses;
732 $el = undef if (defined $el and ! length $el);
734 # switch according to kind of $el and get corresponding ($sql, @bind)
735 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($el, {
737 # skip empty elements, otherwise get invalid trailing AND stuff
738 ARRAYREF => sub {$self->_recurse_where($el) if @$el},
742 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@b);
746 HASHREF => sub {$self->_recurse_where($el, 'and') if %$el},
748 SCALARREF => sub { ($$el); },
751 # top-level arrayref with scalars, recurse in pairs
752 $self->_recurse_where({$el => shift(@clauses)})
755 UNDEF => sub {puke "Supplying an empty left hand side argument is not supported in array-pairs" },
759 push @sql_clauses, $sql;
760 push @all_bind, @bind;
764 return $self->_join_sql_clauses($logic, \@sql_clauses, \@all_bind);
767 #======================================================================
768 # WHERE: top-level ARRAYREFREF
769 #======================================================================
771 sub _where_ARRAYREFREF {
772 my ($self, $where) = @_;
773 my ($sql, @bind) = @$$where;
774 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
775 return ($sql, @bind);
778 #======================================================================
779 # WHERE: top-level HASHREF
780 #======================================================================
783 my ($self, $where) = @_;
784 my (@sql_clauses, @all_bind);
786 for my $k (sort keys %$where) {
787 my $v = $where->{$k};
789 # ($k => $v) is either a special unary op or a regular hashpair
790 my ($sql, @bind) = do {
792 # put the operator in canonical form
794 $op = substr $op, 1; # remove initial dash
795 $op =~ s/^\s+|\s+$//g;# remove leading/trailing space
796 $op =~ s/\s+/ /g; # compress whitespace
798 # so that -not_foo works correctly
799 $op =~ s/^not_/NOT /i;
801 $self->_debug("Unary OP(-$op) within hashref, recursing...");
802 my ($s, @b) = $self->_where_unary_op($op, $v);
804 # top level vs nested
805 # we assume that handled unary ops will take care of their ()s
807 List::Util::first {$op =~ $_->{regex}} @{$self->{unary_ops}}
809 ( defined $self->{_nested_func_lhs} and $self->{_nested_func_lhs} eq $k )
815 if (is_literal_value ($v) ) {
816 belch 'Hash-pairs consisting of an empty string with a literal are deprecated, and will be removed in 2.0: use -and => [ $literal ] instead';
819 puke "Supplying an empty left hand side argument is not supported in hash-pairs";
823 my $method = $self->_METHOD_FOR_refkind("_where_hashpair", $v);
824 $self->$method($k, $v);
828 push @sql_clauses, $sql;
829 push @all_bind, @bind;
832 return $self->_join_sql_clauses('and', \@sql_clauses, \@all_bind);
835 sub _where_unary_op {
836 my ($self, $op, $rhs) = @_;
838 $op =~ s/^-// if length($op) > 1;
840 # top level special ops are illegal in general
841 puke "Illegal use of top-level '-$op'"
842 if !(defined $self->{_nested_func_lhs})
843 and List::Util::first { $op =~ $_->{regex} } @{$self->{special_ops}}
844 and not List::Util::first { $op =~ $_->{regex} } @{$self->{unary_ops}};
846 if (my $op_entry = List::Util::first { $op =~ $_->{regex} } @{$self->{unary_ops}}) {
847 my $handler = $op_entry->{handler};
849 if (not ref $handler) {
850 if ($op =~ s/ [_\s]? \d+ $//x ) {
851 belch 'Use of [and|or|nest]_N modifiers is deprecated and will be removed in SQLA v2.0. '
852 . "You probably wanted ...-and => [ -$op => COND1, -$op => COND2 ... ]";
854 return $self->$handler($op, $rhs);
856 elsif (ref $handler eq 'CODE') {
857 return $handler->($self, $op, $rhs);
860 puke "Illegal handler for operator $op - expecting a method name or a coderef";
864 $self->_debug("Generic unary OP: $op - recursing as function");
866 $self->_assert_pass_injection_guard($op);
868 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($rhs, {
870 puke "Illegal use of top-level '-$op'"
871 unless defined $self->{_nested_func_lhs};
874 $self->_convert('?'),
875 $self->_bindtype($self->{_nested_func_lhs}, $rhs)
879 $self->_recurse_where($rhs)
883 $sql = sprintf('%s %s',
884 $self->_sqlcase($op),
888 return ($sql, @bind);
891 sub _where_op_ANDOR {
892 my ($self, $op, $v) = @_;
894 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
896 return $self->_where_ARRAYREF($v, $op);
900 return ($op =~ /^or/i)
901 ? $self->_where_ARRAYREF([ map { $_ => $v->{$_} } (sort keys %$v) ], $op)
902 : $self->_where_HASHREF($v);
906 puke "-$op => \\\$scalar makes little sense, use " .
908 ? '[ \$scalar, \%rest_of_conditions ] instead'
909 : '-and => [ \$scalar, \%rest_of_conditions ] instead'
914 puke "-$op => \\[...] makes little sense, use " .
916 ? '[ \[...], \%rest_of_conditions ] instead'
917 : '-and => [ \[...], \%rest_of_conditions ] instead'
921 SCALAR => sub { # permissively interpreted as SQL
922 puke "-$op => \$value makes little sense, use -bool => \$value instead";
926 puke "-$op => undef not supported";
932 my ($self, $op, $v) = @_;
934 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
936 SCALAR => sub { # permissively interpreted as SQL
937 belch "literal SQL should be -nest => \\'scalar' "
938 . "instead of -nest => 'scalar' ";
943 puke "-$op => undef not supported";
947 $self->_recurse_where($v);
955 my ($self, $op, $v) = @_;
957 my ($s, @b) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
958 SCALAR => sub { # interpreted as SQL column
959 $self->_convert($self->_quote($v));
963 puke "-$op => undef not supported";
967 $self->_recurse_where($v);
971 $s = "(NOT $s)" if $op =~ /^not/i;
976 sub _where_op_IDENT {
978 my ($op, $rhs) = splice @_, -2;
979 if (! defined $rhs or length ref $rhs) {
980 puke "-$op requires a single plain scalar argument (a quotable identifier)";
983 # in case we are called as a top level special op (no '=')
984 my $has_lhs = my $lhs = shift;
986 $_ = $self->_convert($self->_quote($_)) for ($lhs, $rhs);
994 sub _where_op_VALUE {
996 my ($op, $rhs) = splice @_, -2;
998 # in case we are called as a top level special op (no '=')
1002 if (! defined $rhs) {
1004 ? $self->_where_hashpair_HASHREF($lhs, { -is => undef })
1011 (defined $lhs ? $lhs : $self->{_nested_func_lhs}),
1018 $self->_convert($self->_quote($lhs)) . ' = ' . $self->_convert('?'),
1022 $self->_convert('?'),
1029 my %unop_postfix = map +($_ => 1), 'is null', 'is not null';
1035 my ($self, $args) = @_;
1036 my ($left, $low, $high) = @$args;
1037 my ($rhsql, @rhbind) = do {
1039 puke "Single arg to between must be a literal"
1040 unless $low->{-literal};
1043 local $self->{_nested_func_lhs} = $left->{-ident}
1044 if ref($left) eq 'HASH' and $left->{-ident};
1045 my ($l, $h) = map [ $self->_where_unary_op(%$_) ], $low, $high;
1046 (join(' ', $l->[0], $self->_sqlcase('and'), $h->[0]),
1047 @{$l}[1..$#$l], @{$h}[1..$#$h])
1050 my ($lhsql, @lhbind) = $self->_recurse_where($left);
1052 join(' ', '(', $lhsql, $self->_sqlcase($op), $rhsql, ')'),
1056 }), 'between', 'not between'),
1060 my ($self, undef, $v) = @_;
1061 my ($op, @args) = @$v;
1062 $op =~ s/^-// if length($op) > 1;
1063 local $self->{_nested_func_lhs};
1064 if (my $h = $special{$op}) {
1065 return $self->$h(\@args);
1068 my ($expr_sql, @bind) = $self->_recurse_where($args[0]);
1069 my $final_op = join ' ', split '_', $op;
1070 my $op_sql = $self->_sqlcase($final_op);
1072 $unop_postfix{lc($final_op)}
1073 ? "${expr_sql} ${op_sql}"
1074 : "${op_sql} ${expr_sql}"
1076 return ($final_sql, @bind);
1077 } elsif (@args == 2) {
1078 my ($l, $r) = map [ $self->_recurse_where($_) ], @args;
1079 return ( $l->[0].' '.$self->_sqlcase(join ' ', split '_', $op).' '.$r->[0], @{$l}[1..$#$l], @{$r}[1..$#$r] );
1084 sub _where_op_BIND {
1085 my ($self, undef, $bind) = @_;
1086 return ($self->_convert('?'), $self->_bindtype(@$bind));
1089 sub _where_op_LITERAL {
1090 my ($self, undef, $literal) = @_;
1091 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@{$literal}[1..$#$literal]);
1095 sub _where_hashpair_ARRAYREF {
1096 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
1099 my @v = @$v; # need copy because of shift below
1100 $self->_debug("ARRAY($k) means distribute over elements");
1102 # put apart first element if it is an operator (-and, -or)
1104 (defined $v[0] && $v[0] =~ /^ - (?: AND|OR ) $/ix)
1108 my @distributed = map { {$k => $_} } @v;
1111 $self->_debug("OP($op) reinjected into the distributed array");
1112 unshift @distributed, $op;
1115 my $logic = $op ? substr($op, 1) : '';
1117 return $self->_recurse_where(\@distributed, $logic);
1120 $self->_debug("empty ARRAY($k) means 0=1");
1121 return ($self->{sqlfalse});
1125 sub _where_hashpair_HASHREF {
1126 my ($self, $k, $v, $logic) = @_;
1129 local $self->{_nested_func_lhs} = defined $self->{_nested_func_lhs}
1130 ? $self->{_nested_func_lhs}
1134 my ($all_sql, @all_bind);
1136 for my $orig_op (sort keys %$v) {
1137 my $val = $v->{$orig_op};
1139 # put the operator in canonical form
1142 # FIXME - we need to phase out dash-less ops
1143 $op =~ s/^-//; # remove possible initial dash
1144 $op =~ s/^\s+|\s+$//g;# remove leading/trailing space
1145 $op =~ s/\s+/ /g; # compress whitespace
1147 $self->_assert_pass_injection_guard($op);
1150 $op =~ s/^is_not/IS NOT/i;
1152 # so that -not_foo works correctly
1153 $op =~ s/^not_/NOT /i;
1155 # another retarded special case: foo => { $op => { -value => undef } }
1156 if (ref $val eq 'HASH' and keys %$val == 1 and exists $val->{-value} and ! defined $val->{-value} ) {
1162 # CASE: col-value logic modifiers
1163 if ($orig_op =~ /^ \- (and|or) $/xi) {
1164 ($sql, @bind) = $self->_where_hashpair_HASHREF($k, $val, $1);
1166 # CASE: special operators like -in or -between
1167 elsif (my $special_op = List::Util::first { $op =~ $_->{regex} } @{$self->{special_ops}}) {
1168 my $handler = $special_op->{handler};
1170 puke "No handler supplied for special operator $orig_op";
1172 elsif (not ref $handler) {
1173 ($sql, @bind) = $self->$handler($k, $op, $val);
1175 elsif (ref $handler eq 'CODE') {
1176 ($sql, @bind) = $handler->($self, $k, $op, $val);
1179 puke "Illegal handler for special operator $orig_op - expecting a method name or a coderef";
1183 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($val, {
1185 ARRAYREF => sub { # CASE: col => {op => \@vals}
1186 ($sql, @bind) = $self->_where_field_op_ARRAYREF($k, $op, $val);
1189 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # CASE: col => {op => \[$sql, @bind]} (literal SQL with bind)
1190 my ($sub_sql, @sub_bind) = @$$val;
1191 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@sub_bind);
1192 $sql = join ' ', $self->_convert($self->_quote($k)),
1193 $self->_sqlcase($op),
1198 UNDEF => sub { # CASE: col => {op => undef} : sql "IS (NOT)? NULL"
1200 $op =~ /^not$/i ? 'is not' # legacy
1201 : $op =~ $self->{equality_op} ? 'is'
1202 : $op =~ $self->{like_op} ? belch("Supplying an undefined argument to '@{[ uc $op]}' is deprecated") && 'is'
1203 : $op =~ $self->{inequality_op} ? 'is not'
1204 : $op =~ $self->{not_like_op} ? belch("Supplying an undefined argument to '@{[ uc $op]}' is deprecated") && 'is not'
1205 : puke "unexpected operator '$orig_op' with undef operand";
1207 $sql = $self->_quote($k) . $self->_sqlcase(" $is null");
1210 FALLBACK => sub { # CASE: col => {op/func => $stuff}
1211 ($sql, @bind) = $self->_where_unary_op($op, $val);
1214 $self->_convert($self->_quote($k)),
1215 $self->{_nested_func_lhs} eq $k ? $sql : "($sql)", # top level vs nested
1221 ($all_sql) = (defined $all_sql and $all_sql) ? $self->_join_sql_clauses($logic, [$all_sql, $sql], []) : $sql;
1222 push @all_bind, @bind;
1224 return ($all_sql, @all_bind);
1227 sub _where_field_IS {
1228 my ($self, $k, $op, $v) = @_;
1230 my ($s) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
1233 $self->_convert($self->_quote($k)),
1234 map { $self->_sqlcase($_)} ($op, 'null')
1237 puke "$op can only take undef as argument";
1244 sub _where_field_op_ARRAYREF {
1245 my ($self, $k, $op, $vals) = @_;
1247 my @vals = @$vals; #always work on a copy
1250 $self->_debug(sprintf '%s means multiple elements: [ %s ]',
1252 join(', ', map { defined $_ ? "'$_'" : 'NULL' } @vals ),
1255 # see if the first element is an -and/-or op
1257 if (defined $vals[0] && $vals[0] =~ /^ - (AND|OR) $/ix) {
1262 # a long standing API wart - an attempt to change this behavior during
1263 # the 1.50 series failed *spectacularly*. Warn instead and leave the
1268 (!$logic or $logic eq 'OR')
1270 ($op =~ $self->{inequality_op} or $op =~ $self->{not_like_op})
1273 belch "A multi-element arrayref as an argument to the inequality op '$o' "
1274 . 'is technically equivalent to an always-true 1=1 (you probably wanted '
1275 . "to say ...{ \$inequality_op => [ -and => \@values ] }... instead)"
1279 # distribute $op over each remaining member of @vals, append logic if exists
1280 return $self->_recurse_where([map { {$k => {$op, $_}} } @vals], $logic);
1284 # try to DWIM on equality operators
1286 $op =~ $self->{equality_op} ? $self->{sqlfalse}
1287 : $op =~ $self->{like_op} ? belch("Supplying an empty arrayref to '@{[ uc $op]}' is deprecated") && $self->{sqlfalse}
1288 : $op =~ $self->{inequality_op} ? $self->{sqltrue}
1289 : $op =~ $self->{not_like_op} ? belch("Supplying an empty arrayref to '@{[ uc $op]}' is deprecated") && $self->{sqltrue}
1290 : puke "operator '$op' applied on an empty array (field '$k')";
1295 sub _where_hashpair_SCALARREF {
1296 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
1297 $self->_debug("SCALAR($k) means literal SQL: $$v");
1298 my $sql = $self->_quote($k) . " " . $$v;
1302 # literal SQL with bind
1303 sub _where_hashpair_ARRAYREFREF {
1304 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
1305 $self->_debug("REF($k) means literal SQL: @${$v}");
1306 my ($sql, @bind) = @$$v;
1307 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1308 $sql = $self->_quote($k) . " " . $sql;
1309 return ($sql, @bind );
1312 # literal SQL without bind
1313 sub _where_hashpair_SCALAR {
1314 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
1315 $self->_debug("NOREF($k) means simple key=val: $k $self->{cmp} $v");
1316 return ($self->_where_hashpair_HASHREF($k, { $self->{cmp} => $v }));
1320 sub _where_hashpair_UNDEF {
1321 my ($self, $k, $v) = @_;
1322 $self->_debug("UNDEF($k) means IS NULL");
1323 return $self->_where_hashpair_HASHREF($k, { -is => undef });
1326 #======================================================================
1327 # WHERE: TOP-LEVEL OTHERS (SCALARREF, SCALAR, UNDEF)
1328 #======================================================================
1331 sub _where_SCALARREF {
1332 my ($self, $where) = @_;
1335 $self->_debug("SCALAR(*top) means literal SQL: $$where");
1341 my ($self, $where) = @_;
1344 $self->_debug("NOREF(*top) means literal SQL: $where");
1355 #======================================================================
1356 # WHERE: BUILTIN SPECIAL OPERATORS (-in, -between)
1357 #======================================================================
1360 sub _where_field_BETWEEN {
1361 my ($self, $k, $op, $vals) = @_;
1363 my ($label, $and, $placeholder);
1364 $label = $self->_convert($self->_quote($k));
1365 $and = ' ' . $self->_sqlcase('and') . ' ';
1366 $placeholder = $self->_convert('?');
1367 $op = $self->_sqlcase($op);
1369 my $invalid_args = "Operator '$op' requires either an arrayref with two defined values or expressions, or a single literal scalarref/arrayref-ref";
1371 my ($clause, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($vals, {
1372 ARRAYREFREF => sub {
1373 my ($s, @b) = @$$vals;
1374 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@b);
1381 puke $invalid_args if @$vals != 2;
1383 my (@all_sql, @all_bind);
1384 foreach my $val (@$vals) {
1385 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($val, {
1387 return ($placeholder, $self->_bindtype($k, $val) );
1392 ARRAYREFREF => sub {
1393 my ($sql, @bind) = @$$val;
1394 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1395 return ($sql, @bind);
1398 my ($func, $arg, @rest) = %$val;
1399 puke "Only simple { -func => arg } functions accepted as sub-arguments to BETWEEN"
1400 if (@rest or $func !~ /^ \- (.+)/x);
1401 $self->_where_unary_op($1 => $arg);
1407 push @all_sql, $sql;
1408 push @all_bind, @bind;
1412 (join $and, @all_sql),
1421 my $sql = "( $label $op $clause )";
1422 return ($sql, @bind)
1426 sub _where_field_IN {
1427 my ($self, $k, $op, $vals) = @_;
1429 # backwards compatibility: if scalar, force into an arrayref
1430 $vals = [$vals] if defined $vals && ! ref $vals;
1432 my ($label) = $self->_convert($self->_quote($k));
1433 my ($placeholder) = $self->_convert('?');
1434 $op = $self->_sqlcase($op);
1436 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($vals, {
1437 ARRAYREF => sub { # list of choices
1438 if (@$vals) { # nonempty list
1439 my (@all_sql, @all_bind);
1441 for my $val (@$vals) {
1442 my ($sql, @bind) = $self->_SWITCH_refkind($val, {
1444 return ($placeholder, $val);
1449 ARRAYREFREF => sub {
1450 my ($sql, @bind) = @$$val;
1451 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1452 return ($sql, @bind);
1455 my ($func, $arg, @rest) = %$val;
1456 puke "Only simple { -func => arg } functions accepted as sub-arguments to IN"
1457 if (@rest or $func !~ /^ \- (.+)/x);
1458 $self->_where_unary_op($1 => $arg);
1462 'SQL::Abstract before v1.75 used to generate incorrect SQL when the '
1463 . "-$op operator was given an undef-containing list: !!!AUDIT YOUR CODE "
1464 . 'AND DATA!!! (the upcoming Data::Query-based version of SQL::Abstract '
1465 . 'will emit the logically correct SQL instead of raising this exception)'
1469 push @all_sql, $sql;
1470 push @all_bind, @bind;
1474 sprintf('%s %s ( %s )',
1477 join(', ', @all_sql)
1479 $self->_bindtype($k, @all_bind),
1482 else { # empty list: some databases won't understand "IN ()", so DWIM
1483 my $sql = ($op =~ /\bnot\b/i) ? $self->{sqltrue} : $self->{sqlfalse};
1488 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL
1489 my $sql = $self->_open_outer_paren($$vals);
1490 return ("$label $op ( $sql )");
1492 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
1493 my ($sql, @bind) = @$$vals;
1494 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1495 $sql = $self->_open_outer_paren($sql);
1496 return ("$label $op ( $sql )", @bind);
1500 puke "Argument passed to the '$op' operator can not be undefined";
1504 puke "special op $op requires an arrayref (or scalarref/arrayref-ref)";
1508 return ($sql, @bind);
1511 # Some databases (SQLite) treat col IN (1, 2) different from
1512 # col IN ( (1, 2) ). Use this to strip all outer parens while
1513 # adding them back in the corresponding method
1514 sub _open_outer_paren {
1515 my ($self, $sql) = @_;
1517 while (my ($inner) = $sql =~ /^ \s* \( (.*) \) \s* $/xs) {
1519 # there are closing parens inside, need the heavy duty machinery
1520 # to reevaluate the extraction starting from $sql (full reevaluation)
1521 if ($inner =~ /\)/) {
1522 require Text::Balanced;
1524 my (undef, $remainder) = do {
1525 # idiotic design - writes to $@ but *DOES NOT* throw exceptions
1527 Text::Balanced::extract_bracketed($sql, '()', qr/\s*/);
1530 # the entire expression needs to be a balanced bracketed thing
1531 # (after an extract no remainder sans trailing space)
1532 last if defined $remainder and $remainder =~ /\S/;
1542 #======================================================================
1544 #======================================================================
1547 my ($self, $arg) = @_;
1550 for my $c ($self->_order_by_chunks($arg) ) {
1551 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($c, {
1552 SCALAR => sub { push @sql, $c },
1553 ARRAYREF => sub { push @sql, shift @$c; push @bind, @$c },
1559 $self->_sqlcase(' order by'),
1565 return wantarray ? ($sql, @bind) : $sql;
1568 sub _order_by_chunks {
1569 my ($self, $arg) = @_;
1571 return $self->_SWITCH_refkind($arg, {
1574 map { $self->_order_by_chunks($_ ) } @$arg;
1577 ARRAYREFREF => sub {
1578 my ($s, @b) = @$$arg;
1579 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@b);
1583 SCALAR => sub {$self->_quote($arg)},
1585 UNDEF => sub {return () },
1587 SCALARREF => sub {$$arg}, # literal SQL, no quoting
1590 # get first pair in hash
1591 my ($key, $val, @rest) = %$arg;
1593 return () unless $key;
1595 if (@rest or not $key =~ /^-(desc|asc)/i) {
1596 puke "hash passed to _order_by must have exactly one key (-desc or -asc)";
1602 for my $c ($self->_order_by_chunks($val)) {
1605 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($c, {
1610 ($sql, @bind) = @$c;
1614 $sql = $sql . ' ' . $self->_sqlcase($direction);
1616 push @ret, [ $sql, @bind];
1625 #======================================================================
1626 # DATASOURCE (FOR NOW, JUST PLAIN TABLE OR LIST OF TABLES)
1627 #======================================================================
1632 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($from, {
1633 ARRAYREF => sub {join ', ', map { $self->_quote($_) } @$from;},
1634 SCALAR => sub {$self->_quote($from)},
1635 SCALARREF => sub {$$from},
1640 #======================================================================
1642 #======================================================================
1644 # highly optimized, as it's called way too often
1646 # my ($self, $label) = @_;
1648 return '' unless defined $_[1];
1649 return ${$_[1]} if ref($_[1]) eq 'SCALAR';
1651 $_[0]->{quote_char} or
1652 ($_[0]->_assert_pass_injection_guard($_[1]), return $_[1]);
1654 my $qref = ref $_[0]->{quote_char};
1656 !$qref ? ($_[0]->{quote_char}, $_[0]->{quote_char})
1657 : ($qref eq 'ARRAY') ? @{$_[0]->{quote_char}}
1658 : puke "Unsupported quote_char format: $_[0]->{quote_char}";
1660 my $esc = $_[0]->{escape_char} || $r;
1662 # parts containing * are naturally unquoted
1663 return join($_[0]->{name_sep}||'', map
1664 +( $_ eq '*' ? $_ : do { (my $n = $_) =~ s/(\Q$esc\E|\Q$r\E)/$esc$1/g; $l . $n . $r } ),
1665 ( $_[0]->{name_sep} ? split (/\Q$_[0]->{name_sep}\E/, $_[1] ) : $_[1] )
1670 # Conversion, if applicable
1672 #my ($self, $arg) = @_;
1673 if ($_[0]->{convert}) {
1674 return $_[0]->_sqlcase($_[0]->{convert}) .'(' . $_[1] . ')';
1681 #my ($self, $col, @vals) = @_;
1682 # called often - tighten code
1683 return $_[0]->{bindtype} eq 'columns'
1684 ? map {[$_[1], $_]} @_[2 .. $#_]
1689 # Dies if any element of @bind is not in [colname => value] format
1690 # if bindtype is 'columns'.
1691 sub _assert_bindval_matches_bindtype {
1692 # my ($self, @bind) = @_;
1694 if ($self->{bindtype} eq 'columns') {
1696 if (!defined $_ || ref($_) ne 'ARRAY' || @$_ != 2) {
1697 puke "bindtype 'columns' selected, you need to pass: [column_name => bind_value]"
1703 sub _join_sql_clauses {
1704 my ($self, $logic, $clauses_aref, $bind_aref) = @_;
1706 if (@$clauses_aref > 1) {
1707 my $join = " " . $self->_sqlcase($logic) . " ";
1708 my $sql = '( ' . join($join, @$clauses_aref) . ' )';
1709 return ($sql, @$bind_aref);
1711 elsif (@$clauses_aref) {
1712 return ($clauses_aref->[0], @$bind_aref); # no parentheses
1715 return (); # if no SQL, ignore @$bind_aref
1720 # Fix SQL case, if so requested
1722 # LDNOTE: if $self->{case} is true, then it contains 'lower', so we
1723 # don't touch the argument ... crooked logic, but let's not change it!
1724 return $_[0]->{case} ? $_[1] : uc($_[1]);
1728 #======================================================================
1729 # DISPATCHING FROM REFKIND
1730 #======================================================================
1733 my ($self, $data) = @_;
1735 return 'UNDEF' unless defined $data;
1737 # blessed objects are treated like scalars
1738 my $ref = (Scalar::Util::blessed $data) ? '' : ref $data;
1740 return 'SCALAR' unless $ref;
1743 while ($ref eq 'REF') {
1745 $ref = (Scalar::Util::blessed $data) ? '' : ref $data;
1749 return ($ref||'SCALAR') . ('REF' x $n_steps);
1753 my ($self, $data) = @_;
1754 my @try = ($self->_refkind($data));
1755 push @try, 'SCALAR_or_UNDEF' if $try[0] eq 'SCALAR' || $try[0] eq 'UNDEF';
1756 push @try, 'FALLBACK';
1760 sub _METHOD_FOR_refkind {
1761 my ($self, $meth_prefix, $data) = @_;
1764 for (@{$self->_try_refkind($data)}) {
1765 $method = $self->can($meth_prefix."_".$_)
1769 return $method || puke "cannot dispatch on '$meth_prefix' for ".$self->_refkind($data);
1773 sub _SWITCH_refkind {
1774 my ($self, $data, $dispatch_table) = @_;
1777 for (@{$self->_try_refkind($data)}) {
1778 $coderef = $dispatch_table->{$_}
1782 puke "no dispatch entry for ".$self->_refkind($data)
1791 #======================================================================
1792 # VALUES, GENERATE, AUTOLOAD
1793 #======================================================================
1795 # LDNOTE: original code from nwiger, didn't touch code in that section
1796 # I feel the AUTOLOAD stuff should not be the default, it should
1797 # only be activated on explicit demand by user.
1801 my $data = shift || return;
1802 puke "Argument to ", __PACKAGE__, "->values must be a \\%hash"
1803 unless ref $data eq 'HASH';
1806 foreach my $k (sort keys %$data) {
1807 my $v = $data->{$k};
1808 $self->_SWITCH_refkind($v, {
1810 if ($self->{array_datatypes}) { # array datatype
1811 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
1813 else { # literal SQL with bind
1814 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
1815 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1816 push @all_bind, @bind;
1819 ARRAYREFREF => sub { # literal SQL with bind
1820 my ($sql, @bind) = @${$v};
1821 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1822 push @all_bind, @bind;
1824 SCALARREF => sub { # literal SQL without bind
1826 SCALAR_or_UNDEF => sub {
1827 push @all_bind, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
1838 my(@sql, @sqlq, @sqlv);
1842 if ($ref eq 'HASH') {
1843 for my $k (sort keys %$_) {
1846 my $label = $self->_quote($k);
1847 if ($r eq 'ARRAY') {
1848 # literal SQL with bind
1849 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
1850 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1851 push @sqlq, "$label = $sql";
1853 } elsif ($r eq 'SCALAR') {
1854 # literal SQL without bind
1855 push @sqlq, "$label = $$v";
1857 push @sqlq, "$label = ?";
1858 push @sqlv, $self->_bindtype($k, $v);
1861 push @sql, $self->_sqlcase('set'), join ', ', @sqlq;
1862 } elsif ($ref eq 'ARRAY') {
1863 # unlike insert(), assume these are ONLY the column names, i.e. for SQL
1866 if ($r eq 'ARRAY') { # literal SQL with bind
1867 my ($sql, @bind) = @$v;
1868 $self->_assert_bindval_matches_bindtype(@bind);
1871 } elsif ($r eq 'SCALAR') { # literal SQL without bind
1872 # embedded literal SQL
1879 push @sql, '(' . join(', ', @sqlq) . ')';
1880 } elsif ($ref eq 'SCALAR') {
1884 # strings get case twiddled
1885 push @sql, $self->_sqlcase($_);
1889 my $sql = join ' ', @sql;
1891 # this is pretty tricky
1892 # if ask for an array, return ($stmt, @bind)
1893 # otherwise, s/?/shift @sqlv/ to put it inline
1895 return ($sql, @sqlv);
1897 1 while $sql =~ s/\?/my $d = shift(@sqlv);
1898 ref $d ? $d->[1] : $d/e;
1907 # This allows us to check for a local, then _form, attr
1909 my($name) = $AUTOLOAD =~ /.*::(.+)/;
1910 return $self->generate($name, @_);
1921 SQL::Abstract - Generate SQL from Perl data structures
1927 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new;
1929 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->select($source, \@fields, \%where, $order);
1931 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert($table, \%fieldvals || \@values);
1933 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->update($table, \%fieldvals, \%where);
1935 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->delete($table, \%where);
1937 # Then, use these in your DBI statements
1938 my $sth = $dbh->prepare($stmt);
1939 $sth->execute(@bind);
1941 # Just generate the WHERE clause
1942 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->where(\%where, $order);
1944 # Return values in the same order, for hashed queries
1945 # See PERFORMANCE section for more details
1946 my @bind = $sql->values(\%fieldvals);
1950 This module was inspired by the excellent L<DBIx::Abstract>.
1951 However, in using that module I found that what I really wanted
1952 to do was generate SQL, but still retain complete control over my
1953 statement handles and use the DBI interface. So, I set out to
1954 create an abstract SQL generation module.
1956 While based on the concepts used by L<DBIx::Abstract>, there are
1957 several important differences, especially when it comes to WHERE
1958 clauses. I have modified the concepts used to make the SQL easier
1959 to generate from Perl data structures and, IMO, more intuitive.
1960 The underlying idea is for this module to do what you mean, based
1961 on the data structures you provide it. The big advantage is that
1962 you don't have to modify your code every time your data changes,
1963 as this module figures it out.
1965 To begin with, an SQL INSERT is as easy as just specifying a hash
1966 of C<key=value> pairs:
1969 name => 'Jimbo Bobson',
1970 phone => '123-456-7890',
1971 address => '42 Sister Lane',
1972 city => 'St. Louis',
1973 state => 'Louisiana',
1976 The SQL can then be generated with this:
1978 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert('people', \%data);
1980 Which would give you something like this:
1982 $stmt = "INSERT INTO people
1983 (address, city, name, phone, state)
1984 VALUES (?, ?, ?, ?, ?)";
1985 @bind = ('42 Sister Lane', 'St. Louis', 'Jimbo Bobson',
1986 '123-456-7890', 'Louisiana');
1988 These are then used directly in your DBI code:
1990 my $sth = $dbh->prepare($stmt);
1991 $sth->execute(@bind);
1993 =head2 Inserting and Updating Arrays
1995 If your database has array types (like for example Postgres),
1996 activate the special option C<< array_datatypes => 1 >>
1997 when creating the C<SQL::Abstract> object.
1998 Then you may use an arrayref to insert and update database array types:
2000 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(array_datatypes => 1);
2002 planets => [qw/Mercury Venus Earth Mars/]
2005 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert('solar_system', \%data);
2009 $stmt = "INSERT INTO solar_system (planets) VALUES (?)"
2011 @bind = (['Mercury', 'Venus', 'Earth', 'Mars']);
2014 =head2 Inserting and Updating SQL
2016 In order to apply SQL functions to elements of your C<%data> you may
2017 specify a reference to an arrayref for the given hash value. For example,
2018 if you need to execute the Oracle C<to_date> function on a value, you can
2019 say something like this:
2023 date_entered => \[ "to_date(?,'MM/DD/YYYY')", "03/02/2003" ],
2026 The first value in the array is the actual SQL. Any other values are
2027 optional and would be included in the bind values array. This gives
2030 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert('people', \%data);
2032 $stmt = "INSERT INTO people (name, date_entered)
2033 VALUES (?, to_date(?,'MM/DD/YYYY'))";
2034 @bind = ('Bill', '03/02/2003');
2036 An UPDATE is just as easy, all you change is the name of the function:
2038 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->update('people', \%data);
2040 Notice that your C<%data> isn't touched; the module will generate
2041 the appropriately quirky SQL for you automatically. Usually you'll
2042 want to specify a WHERE clause for your UPDATE, though, which is
2043 where handling C<%where> hashes comes in handy...
2045 =head2 Complex where statements
2047 This module can generate pretty complicated WHERE statements
2048 easily. For example, simple C<key=value> pairs are taken to mean
2049 equality, and if you want to see if a field is within a set
2050 of values, you can use an arrayref. Let's say we wanted to
2051 SELECT some data based on this criteria:
2054 requestor => 'inna',
2055 worker => ['nwiger', 'rcwe', 'sfz'],
2056 status => { '!=', 'completed' }
2059 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->select('tickets', '*', \%where);
2061 The above would give you something like this:
2063 $stmt = "SELECT * FROM tickets WHERE
2064 ( requestor = ? ) AND ( status != ? )
2065 AND ( worker = ? OR worker = ? OR worker = ? )";
2066 @bind = ('inna', 'completed', 'nwiger', 'rcwe', 'sfz');
2068 Which you could then use in DBI code like so:
2070 my $sth = $dbh->prepare($stmt);
2071 $sth->execute(@bind);
2077 The methods are simple. There's one for every major SQL operation,
2078 and a constructor you use first. The arguments are specified in a
2079 similar order for each method (table, then fields, then a where
2080 clause) to try and simplify things.
2082 =head2 new(option => 'value')
2084 The C<new()> function takes a list of options and values, and returns
2085 a new B<SQL::Abstract> object which can then be used to generate SQL
2086 through the methods below. The options accepted are:
2092 If set to 'lower', then SQL will be generated in all lowercase. By
2093 default SQL is generated in "textbook" case meaning something like:
2095 SELECT a_field FROM a_table WHERE some_field LIKE '%someval%'
2097 Any setting other than 'lower' is ignored.
2101 This determines what the default comparison operator is. By default
2102 it is C<=>, meaning that a hash like this:
2104 %where = (name => 'nwiger', email => 'nate@wiger.org');
2106 Will generate SQL like this:
2108 WHERE name = 'nwiger' AND email = 'nate@wiger.org'
2110 However, you may want loose comparisons by default, so if you set
2111 C<cmp> to C<like> you would get SQL such as:
2113 WHERE name like 'nwiger' AND email like 'nate@wiger.org'
2115 You can also override the comparison on an individual basis - see
2116 the huge section on L</"WHERE CLAUSES"> at the bottom.
2118 =item sqltrue, sqlfalse
2120 Expressions for inserting boolean values within SQL statements.
2121 By default these are C<1=1> and C<1=0>. They are used
2122 by the special operators C<-in> and C<-not_in> for generating
2123 correct SQL even when the argument is an empty array (see below).
2127 This determines the default logical operator for multiple WHERE
2128 statements in arrays or hashes. If absent, the default logic is "or"
2129 for arrays, and "and" for hashes. This means that a WHERE
2133 event_date => {'>=', '2/13/99'},
2134 event_date => {'<=', '4/24/03'},
2137 will generate SQL like this:
2139 WHERE event_date >= '2/13/99' OR event_date <= '4/24/03'
2141 This is probably not what you want given this query, though (look
2142 at the dates). To change the "OR" to an "AND", simply specify:
2144 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(logic => 'and');
2146 Which will change the above C<WHERE> to:
2148 WHERE event_date >= '2/13/99' AND event_date <= '4/24/03'
2150 The logic can also be changed locally by inserting
2151 a modifier in front of an arrayref:
2153 @where = (-and => [event_date => {'>=', '2/13/99'},
2154 event_date => {'<=', '4/24/03'} ]);
2156 See the L</"WHERE CLAUSES"> section for explanations.
2160 This will automatically convert comparisons using the specified SQL
2161 function for both column and value. This is mostly used with an argument
2162 of C<upper> or C<lower>, so that the SQL will have the effect of
2163 case-insensitive "searches". For example, this:
2165 $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(convert => 'upper');
2166 %where = (keywords => 'MaKe iT CAse inSeNSItive');
2168 Will turn out the following SQL:
2170 WHERE upper(keywords) like upper('MaKe iT CAse inSeNSItive')
2172 The conversion can be C<upper()>, C<lower()>, or any other SQL function
2173 that can be applied symmetrically to fields (actually B<SQL::Abstract> does
2174 not validate this option; it will just pass through what you specify verbatim).
2178 This is a kludge because many databases suck. For example, you can't
2179 just bind values using DBI's C<execute()> for Oracle C<CLOB> or C<BLOB> fields.
2180 Instead, you have to use C<bind_param()>:
2182 $sth->bind_param(1, 'reg data');
2183 $sth->bind_param(2, $lots, {ora_type => ORA_CLOB});
2185 The problem is, B<SQL::Abstract> will normally just return a C<@bind> array,
2186 which loses track of which field each slot refers to. Fear not.
2188 If you specify C<bindtype> in new, you can determine how C<@bind> is returned.
2189 Currently, you can specify either C<normal> (default) or C<columns>. If you
2190 specify C<columns>, you will get an array that looks like this:
2192 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new(bindtype => 'columns');
2193 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->insert(...);
2196 [ 'column1', 'value1' ],
2197 [ 'column2', 'value2' ],
2198 [ 'column3', 'value3' ],
2201 You can then iterate through this manually, using DBI's C<bind_param()>.
2203 $sth->prepare($stmt);
2206 my($col, $data) = @$_;
2207 if ($col eq 'details' || $col eq 'comments') {
2208 $sth->bind_param($i, $data, {ora_type => ORA_CLOB});
2209 } elsif ($col eq 'image') {
2210 $sth->bind_param($i, $data, {ora_type => ORA_BLOB});
2212 $sth->bind_param($i, $data);
2216 $sth->execute; # execute without @bind now
2218 Now, why would you still use B<SQL::Abstract> if you have to do this crap?
2219 Basically, the advantage is still that you don't have to care which fields
2220 are or are not included. You could wrap that above C<for> loop in a simple
2221 sub called C<bind_fields()> or something and reuse it repeatedly. You still
2222 get a layer of abstraction over manual SQL specification.
2224 Note that if you set L</bindtype> to C<columns>, the C<\[ $sql, @bind ]>
2225 construct (see L</Literal SQL with placeholders and bind values (subqueries)>)
2226 will expect the bind values in this format.
2230 This is the character that a table or column name will be quoted
2231 with. By default this is an empty string, but you could set it to
2232 the character C<`>, to generate SQL like this:
2234 SELECT `a_field` FROM `a_table` WHERE `some_field` LIKE '%someval%'
2236 Alternatively, you can supply an array ref of two items, the first being the left
2237 hand quote character, and the second the right hand quote character. For
2238 example, you could supply C<['[',']']> for SQL Server 2000 compliant quotes
2239 that generates SQL like this:
2241 SELECT [a_field] FROM [a_table] WHERE [some_field] LIKE '%someval%'
2243 Quoting is useful if you have tables or columns names that are reserved
2244 words in your database's SQL dialect.
2248 This is the character that will be used to escape L</quote_char>s appearing
2249 in an identifier before it has been quoted.
2251 The parameter default in case of a single L</quote_char> character is the quote
2254 When opening-closing-style quoting is used (L</quote_char> is an arrayref)
2255 this parameter defaults to the B<closing (right)> L</quote_char>. Occurrences
2256 of the B<opening (left)> L</quote_char> within the identifier are currently left
2257 untouched. The default for opening-closing-style quotes may change in future
2258 versions, thus you are B<strongly encouraged> to specify the escape character
2263 This is the character that separates a table and column name. It is
2264 necessary to specify this when the C<quote_char> option is selected,
2265 so that tables and column names can be individually quoted like this:
2267 SELECT `table`.`one_field` FROM `table` WHERE `table`.`other_field` = 1
2269 =item injection_guard
2271 A regular expression C<qr/.../> that is applied to any C<-function> and unquoted
2272 column name specified in a query structure. This is a safety mechanism to avoid
2273 injection attacks when mishandling user input e.g.:
2275 my %condition_as_column_value_pairs = get_values_from_user();
2276 $sqla->select( ... , \%condition_as_column_value_pairs );
2278 If the expression matches an exception is thrown. Note that literal SQL
2279 supplied via C<\'...'> or C<\['...']> is B<not> checked in any way.
2281 Defaults to checking for C<;> and the C<GO> keyword (TransactSQL)
2283 =item array_datatypes
2285 When this option is true, arrayrefs in INSERT or UPDATE are
2286 interpreted as array datatypes and are passed directly
2288 When this option is false, arrayrefs are interpreted
2289 as literal SQL, just like refs to arrayrefs
2290 (but this behavior is for backwards compatibility; when writing
2291 new queries, use the "reference to arrayref" syntax
2297 Takes a reference to a list of "special operators"
2298 to extend the syntax understood by L<SQL::Abstract>.
2299 See section L</"SPECIAL OPERATORS"> for details.
2303 Takes a reference to a list of "unary operators"
2304 to extend the syntax understood by L<SQL::Abstract>.
2305 See section L</"UNARY OPERATORS"> for details.
2311 =head2 insert($table, \@values || \%fieldvals, \%options)
2313 This is the simplest function. You simply give it a table name
2314 and either an arrayref of values or hashref of field/value pairs.
2315 It returns an SQL INSERT statement and a list of bind values.
2316 See the sections on L</"Inserting and Updating Arrays"> and
2317 L</"Inserting and Updating SQL"> for information on how to insert
2318 with those data types.
2320 The optional C<\%options> hash reference may contain additional
2321 options to generate the insert SQL. Currently supported options
2328 Takes either a scalar of raw SQL fields, or an array reference of
2329 field names, and adds on an SQL C<RETURNING> statement at the end.
2330 This allows you to return data generated by the insert statement
2331 (such as row IDs) without performing another C<SELECT> statement.
2332 Note, however, this is not part of the SQL standard and may not
2333 be supported by all database engines.
2337 =head2 update($table, \%fieldvals, \%where, \%options)
2339 This takes a table, hashref of field/value pairs, and an optional
2340 hashref L<WHERE clause|/WHERE CLAUSES>. It returns an SQL UPDATE function and a list
2342 See the sections on L</"Inserting and Updating Arrays"> and
2343 L</"Inserting and Updating SQL"> for information on how to insert
2344 with those data types.
2346 The optional C<\%options> hash reference may contain additional
2347 options to generate the update SQL. Currently supported options
2354 See the C<returning> option to
2355 L<insert|/insert($table, \@values || \%fieldvals, \%options)>.
2359 =head2 select($source, $fields, $where, $order)
2361 This returns a SQL SELECT statement and associated list of bind values, as
2362 specified by the arguments:
2368 Specification of the 'FROM' part of the statement.
2369 The argument can be either a plain scalar (interpreted as a table
2370 name, will be quoted), or an arrayref (interpreted as a list
2371 of table names, joined by commas, quoted), or a scalarref
2372 (literal SQL, not quoted).
2376 Specification of the list of fields to retrieve from
2378 The argument can be either an arrayref (interpreted as a list
2379 of field names, will be joined by commas and quoted), or a
2380 plain scalar (literal SQL, not quoted).
2381 Please observe that this API is not as flexible as that of
2382 the first argument C<$source>, for backwards compatibility reasons.
2386 Optional argument to specify the WHERE part of the query.
2387 The argument is most often a hashref, but can also be
2388 an arrayref or plain scalar --
2389 see section L<WHERE clause|/"WHERE CLAUSES"> for details.
2393 Optional argument to specify the ORDER BY part of the query.
2394 The argument can be a scalar, a hashref or an arrayref
2395 -- see section L<ORDER BY clause|/"ORDER BY CLAUSES">
2401 =head2 delete($table, \%where, \%options)
2403 This takes a table name and optional hashref L<WHERE clause|/WHERE CLAUSES>.
2404 It returns an SQL DELETE statement and list of bind values.
2406 The optional C<\%options> hash reference may contain additional
2407 options to generate the delete SQL. Currently supported options
2414 See the C<returning> option to
2415 L<insert|/insert($table, \@values || \%fieldvals, \%options)>.
2419 =head2 where(\%where, $order)
2421 This is used to generate just the WHERE clause. For example,
2422 if you have an arbitrary data structure and know what the
2423 rest of your SQL is going to look like, but want an easy way
2424 to produce a WHERE clause, use this. It returns an SQL WHERE
2425 clause and list of bind values.
2428 =head2 values(\%data)
2430 This just returns the values from the hash C<%data>, in the same
2431 order that would be returned from any of the other above queries.
2432 Using this allows you to markedly speed up your queries if you
2433 are affecting lots of rows. See below under the L</"PERFORMANCE"> section.
2435 =head2 generate($any, 'number', $of, \@data, $struct, \%types)
2437 Warning: This is an experimental method and subject to change.
2439 This returns arbitrarily generated SQL. It's a really basic shortcut.
2440 It will return two different things, depending on return context:
2442 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->generate('create table', \$table, \@fields);
2443 my $stmt_and_val = $sql->generate('create table', \$table, \@fields);
2445 These would return the following:
2447 # First calling form
2448 $stmt = "CREATE TABLE test (?, ?)";
2449 @bind = (field1, field2);
2451 # Second calling form
2452 $stmt_and_val = "CREATE TABLE test (field1, field2)";
2454 Depending on what you're trying to do, it's up to you to choose the correct
2455 format. In this example, the second form is what you would want.
2459 $sql->generate('alter session', { nls_date_format => 'MM/YY' });
2463 ALTER SESSION SET nls_date_format = 'MM/YY'
2465 You get the idea. Strings get their case twiddled, but everything
2466 else remains verbatim.
2468 =head1 EXPORTABLE FUNCTIONS
2470 =head2 is_plain_value
2472 Determines if the supplied argument is a plain value as understood by this
2477 =item * The value is C<undef>
2479 =item * The value is a non-reference
2481 =item * The value is an object with stringification overloading
2483 =item * The value is of the form C<< { -value => $anything } >>
2487 On failure returns C<undef>, on success returns a B<scalar> reference
2488 to the original supplied argument.
2494 The stringification overloading detection is rather advanced: it takes
2495 into consideration not only the presence of a C<""> overload, but if that
2496 fails also checks for enabled
2497 L<autogenerated versions of C<"">|overload/Magic Autogeneration>, based
2498 on either C<0+> or C<bool>.
2500 Unfortunately testing in the field indicates that this
2501 detection B<< may tickle a latent bug in perl versions before 5.018 >>,
2502 but only when very large numbers of stringifying objects are involved.
2503 At the time of writing ( Sep 2014 ) there is no clear explanation of
2504 the direct cause, nor is there a manageably small test case that reliably
2505 reproduces the problem.
2507 If you encounter any of the following exceptions in B<random places within
2508 your application stack> - this module may be to blame:
2510 Operation "ne": no method found,
2511 left argument in overloaded package <something>,
2512 right argument in overloaded package <something>
2516 Stub found while resolving method "???" overloading """" in package <something>
2518 If you fall victim to the above - please attempt to reduce the problem
2519 to something that could be sent to the L<SQL::Abstract developers
2520 |DBIx::Class/GETTING HELP/SUPPORT>
2521 (either publicly or privately). As a workaround in the meantime you can
2522 set C<$ENV{SQLA_ISVALUE_IGNORE_AUTOGENERATED_STRINGIFICATION}> to a true
2523 value, which will most likely eliminate your problem (at the expense of
2524 not being able to properly detect exotic forms of stringification).
2526 This notice and environment variable will be removed in a future version,
2527 as soon as the underlying problem is found and a reliable workaround is
2532 =head2 is_literal_value
2534 Determines if the supplied argument is a literal value as understood by this
2539 =item * C<\$sql_string>
2541 =item * C<\[ $sql_string, @bind_values ]>
2545 On failure returns C<undef>, on success returns an B<array> reference
2546 containing the unpacked version of the supplied literal SQL and bind values.
2548 =head1 WHERE CLAUSES
2552 This module uses a variation on the idea from L<DBIx::Abstract>. It
2553 is B<NOT>, repeat I<not> 100% compatible. B<The main logic of this
2554 module is that things in arrays are OR'ed, and things in hashes
2557 The easiest way to explain is to show lots of examples. After
2558 each C<%where> hash shown, it is assumed you used:
2560 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->where(\%where);
2562 However, note that the C<%where> hash can be used directly in any
2563 of the other functions as well, as described above.
2565 =head2 Key-value pairs
2567 So, let's get started. To begin, a simple hash:
2571 status => 'completed'
2574 Is converted to SQL C<key = val> statements:
2576 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND status = ?";
2577 @bind = ('nwiger', 'completed');
2579 One common thing I end up doing is having a list of values that
2580 a field can be in. To do this, simply specify a list inside of
2585 status => ['assigned', 'in-progress', 'pending'];
2588 This simple code will create the following:
2590 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND ( status = ? OR status = ? OR status = ? )";
2591 @bind = ('nwiger', 'assigned', 'in-progress', 'pending');
2593 A field associated to an empty arrayref will be considered a
2594 logical false and will generate 0=1.
2596 =head2 Tests for NULL values
2598 If the value part is C<undef> then this is converted to SQL <IS NULL>
2607 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND status IS NULL";
2610 To test if a column IS NOT NULL:
2614 status => { '!=', undef },
2617 =head2 Specific comparison operators
2619 If you want to specify a different type of operator for your comparison,
2620 you can use a hashref for a given column:
2624 status => { '!=', 'completed' }
2627 Which would generate:
2629 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND status != ?";
2630 @bind = ('nwiger', 'completed');
2632 To test against multiple values, just enclose the values in an arrayref:
2634 status => { '=', ['assigned', 'in-progress', 'pending'] };
2636 Which would give you:
2638 "WHERE status = ? OR status = ? OR status = ?"
2641 The hashref can also contain multiple pairs, in which case it is expanded
2642 into an C<AND> of its elements:
2646 status => { '!=', 'completed', -not_like => 'pending%' }
2649 # Or more dynamically, like from a form
2650 $where{user} = 'nwiger';
2651 $where{status}{'!='} = 'completed';
2652 $where{status}{'-not_like'} = 'pending%';
2654 # Both generate this
2655 $stmt = "WHERE user = ? AND status != ? AND status NOT LIKE ?";
2656 @bind = ('nwiger', 'completed', 'pending%');
2659 To get an OR instead, you can combine it with the arrayref idea:
2663 priority => [ { '=', 2 }, { '>', 5 } ]
2666 Which would generate:
2668 $stmt = "WHERE ( priority = ? OR priority > ? ) AND user = ?";
2669 @bind = ('2', '5', 'nwiger');
2671 If you want to include literal SQL (with or without bind values), just use a
2672 scalar reference or reference to an arrayref as the value:
2675 date_entered => { '>' => \["to_date(?, 'MM/DD/YYYY')", "11/26/2008"] },
2676 date_expires => { '<' => \"now()" }
2679 Which would generate:
2681 $stmt = "WHERE date_entered > to_date(?, 'MM/DD/YYYY') AND date_expires < now()";
2682 @bind = ('11/26/2008');
2685 =head2 Logic and nesting operators
2687 In the example above,
2688 there is a subtle trap if you want to say something like
2689 this (notice the C<AND>):
2691 WHERE priority != ? AND priority != ?
2693 Because, in Perl you I<can't> do this:
2695 priority => { '!=' => 2, '!=' => 1 }
2697 As the second C<!=> key will obliterate the first. The solution
2698 is to use the special C<-modifier> form inside an arrayref:
2700 priority => [ -and => {'!=', 2},
2704 Normally, these would be joined by C<OR>, but the modifier tells it
2705 to use C<AND> instead. (Hint: You can use this in conjunction with the
2706 C<logic> option to C<new()> in order to change the way your queries
2707 work by default.) B<Important:> Note that the C<-modifier> goes
2708 B<INSIDE> the arrayref, as an extra first element. This will
2709 B<NOT> do what you think it might:
2711 priority => -and => [{'!=', 2}, {'!=', 1}] # WRONG!
2713 Here is a quick list of equivalencies, since there is some overlap:
2716 status => {'!=', 'completed', 'not like', 'pending%' }
2717 status => [ -and => {'!=', 'completed'}, {'not like', 'pending%'}]
2720 status => {'=', ['assigned', 'in-progress']}
2721 status => [ -or => {'=', 'assigned'}, {'=', 'in-progress'}]
2722 status => [ {'=', 'assigned'}, {'=', 'in-progress'} ]
2726 =head2 Special operators: IN, BETWEEN, etc.
2728 You can also use the hashref format to compare a list of fields using the
2729 C<IN> comparison operator, by specifying the list as an arrayref:
2732 status => 'completed',
2733 reportid => { -in => [567, 2335, 2] }
2736 Which would generate:
2738 $stmt = "WHERE status = ? AND reportid IN (?,?,?)";
2739 @bind = ('completed', '567', '2335', '2');
2741 The reverse operator C<-not_in> generates SQL C<NOT IN> and is used in
2744 If the argument to C<-in> is an empty array, 'sqlfalse' is generated
2745 (by default: C<1=0>). Similarly, C<< -not_in => [] >> generates
2746 'sqltrue' (by default: C<1=1>).
2748 In addition to the array you can supply a chunk of literal sql or
2749 literal sql with bind:
2752 customer => { -in => \[
2753 'SELECT cust_id FROM cust WHERE balance > ?',
2756 status => { -in => \'SELECT status_codes FROM states' },
2762 customer IN ( SELECT cust_id FROM cust WHERE balance > ? )
2763 AND status IN ( SELECT status_codes FROM states )
2767 Finally, if the argument to C<-in> is not a reference, it will be
2768 treated as a single-element array.
2770 Another pair of operators is C<-between> and C<-not_between>,
2771 used with an arrayref of two values:
2775 completion_date => {
2776 -not_between => ['2002-10-01', '2003-02-06']
2782 WHERE user = ? AND completion_date NOT BETWEEN ( ? AND ? )
2784 Just like with C<-in> all plausible combinations of literal SQL
2788 start0 => { -between => [ 1, 2 ] },
2789 start1 => { -between => \["? AND ?", 1, 2] },
2790 start2 => { -between => \"lower(x) AND upper(y)" },
2791 start3 => { -between => [
2793 \["upper(?)", 'stuff' ],
2800 ( start0 BETWEEN ? AND ? )
2801 AND ( start1 BETWEEN ? AND ? )
2802 AND ( start2 BETWEEN lower(x) AND upper(y) )
2803 AND ( start3 BETWEEN lower(x) AND upper(?) )
2805 @bind = (1, 2, 1, 2, 'stuff');
2808 These are the two builtin "special operators"; but the
2809 list can be expanded: see section L</"SPECIAL OPERATORS"> below.
2811 =head2 Unary operators: bool
2813 If you wish to test against boolean columns or functions within your
2814 database you can use the C<-bool> and C<-not_bool> operators. For
2815 example to test the column C<is_user> being true and the column
2816 C<is_enabled> being false you would use:-
2820 -not_bool => 'is_enabled',
2825 WHERE is_user AND NOT is_enabled
2827 If a more complex combination is required, testing more conditions,
2828 then you should use the and/or operators:-
2833 -not_bool => { two=> { -rlike => 'bar' } },
2834 -not_bool => { three => [ { '=', 2 }, { '>', 5 } ] },
2845 (NOT ( three = ? OR three > ? ))
2848 =head2 Nested conditions, -and/-or prefixes
2850 So far, we've seen how multiple conditions are joined with a top-level
2851 C<AND>. We can change this by putting the different conditions we want in
2852 hashes and then putting those hashes in an array. For example:
2857 status => { -like => ['pending%', 'dispatched'] },
2861 status => 'unassigned',
2865 This data structure would create the following:
2867 $stmt = "WHERE ( user = ? AND ( status LIKE ? OR status LIKE ? ) )
2868 OR ( user = ? AND status = ? ) )";
2869 @bind = ('nwiger', 'pending', 'dispatched', 'robot', 'unassigned');
2872 Clauses in hashrefs or arrayrefs can be prefixed with an C<-and> or C<-or>
2873 to change the logic inside:
2879 -and => [ workhrs => {'>', 20}, geo => 'ASIA' ],
2880 -or => { workhrs => {'<', 50}, geo => 'EURO' },
2887 $stmt = "WHERE ( user = ?
2888 AND ( ( workhrs > ? AND geo = ? )
2889 OR ( workhrs < ? OR geo = ? ) ) )";
2890 @bind = ('nwiger', '20', 'ASIA', '50', 'EURO');
2892 =head3 Algebraic inconsistency, for historical reasons
2894 C<Important note>: when connecting several conditions, the C<-and->|C<-or>
2895 operator goes C<outside> of the nested structure; whereas when connecting
2896 several constraints on one column, the C<-and> operator goes
2897 C<inside> the arrayref. Here is an example combining both features:
2900 -and => [a => 1, b => 2],
2901 -or => [c => 3, d => 4],
2902 e => [-and => {-like => 'foo%'}, {-like => '%bar'} ]
2907 WHERE ( ( ( a = ? AND b = ? )
2908 OR ( c = ? OR d = ? )
2909 OR ( e LIKE ? AND e LIKE ? ) ) )
2911 This difference in syntax is unfortunate but must be preserved for
2912 historical reasons. So be careful: the two examples below would
2913 seem algebraically equivalent, but they are not
2916 { -like => 'foo%' },
2917 { -like => '%bar' },
2919 # yields: WHERE ( ( col LIKE ? AND col LIKE ? ) )
2922 { col => { -like => 'foo%' } },
2923 { col => { -like => '%bar' } },
2925 # yields: WHERE ( ( col LIKE ? OR col LIKE ? ) )
2928 =head2 Literal SQL and value type operators
2930 The basic premise of SQL::Abstract is that in WHERE specifications the "left
2931 side" is a column name and the "right side" is a value (normally rendered as
2932 a placeholder). This holds true for both hashrefs and arrayref pairs as you
2933 see in the L</WHERE CLAUSES> examples above. Sometimes it is necessary to
2934 alter this behavior. There are several ways of doing so.
2938 This is a virtual operator that signals the string to its right side is an
2939 identifier (a column name) and not a value. For example to compare two
2940 columns you would write:
2943 priority => { '<', 2 },
2944 requestor => { -ident => 'submitter' },
2949 $stmt = "WHERE priority < ? AND requestor = submitter";
2952 If you are maintaining legacy code you may see a different construct as
2953 described in L</Deprecated usage of Literal SQL>, please use C<-ident> in new
2958 This is a virtual operator that signals that the construct to its right side
2959 is a value to be passed to DBI. This is for example necessary when you want
2960 to write a where clause against an array (for RDBMS that support such
2961 datatypes). For example:
2964 array => { -value => [1, 2, 3] }
2969 $stmt = 'WHERE array = ?';
2970 @bind = ([1, 2, 3]);
2972 Note that if you were to simply say:
2978 the result would probably not be what you wanted:
2980 $stmt = 'WHERE array = ? OR array = ? OR array = ?';
2985 Finally, sometimes only literal SQL will do. To include a random snippet
2986 of SQL verbatim, you specify it as a scalar reference. Consider this only
2987 as a last resort. Usually there is a better way. For example:
2990 priority => { '<', 2 },
2991 requestor => { -in => \'(SELECT name FROM hitmen)' },
2996 $stmt = "WHERE priority < ? AND requestor IN (SELECT name FROM hitmen)"
2999 Note that in this example, you only get one bind parameter back, since
3000 the verbatim SQL is passed as part of the statement.
3004 Never use untrusted input as a literal SQL argument - this is a massive
3005 security risk (there is no way to check literal snippets for SQL
3006 injections and other nastyness). If you need to deal with untrusted input
3007 use literal SQL with placeholders as described next.
3009 =head3 Literal SQL with placeholders and bind values (subqueries)
3011 If the literal SQL to be inserted has placeholders and bind values,
3012 use a reference to an arrayref (yes this is a double reference --
3013 not so common, but perfectly legal Perl). For example, to find a date
3014 in Postgres you can use something like this:
3017 date_column => \[ "= date '2008-09-30' - ?::integer", 10 ]
3022 $stmt = "WHERE ( date_column = date '2008-09-30' - ?::integer )"
3025 Note that you must pass the bind values in the same format as they are returned
3026 by L<where|/where(\%where, $order)>. This means that if you set L</bindtype>
3027 to C<columns>, you must provide the bind values in the
3028 C<< [ column_meta => value ] >> format, where C<column_meta> is an opaque
3029 scalar value; most commonly the column name, but you can use any scalar value
3030 (including references and blessed references), L<SQL::Abstract> will simply
3031 pass it through intact. So if C<bindtype> is set to C<columns> the above
3032 example will look like:
3035 date_column => \[ "= date '2008-09-30' - ?::integer", [ {} => 10 ] ]
3038 Literal SQL is especially useful for nesting parenthesized clauses in the
3039 main SQL query. Here is a first example:
3041 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind) = ("SELECT c1 FROM t1 WHERE c2 < ? AND c3 LIKE ?",
3045 bar => \["IN ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
3050 $stmt = "WHERE (foo = ? AND bar IN (SELECT c1 FROM t1
3051 WHERE c2 < ? AND c3 LIKE ?))";
3052 @bind = (1234, 100, "foo%");
3054 Other subquery operators, like for example C<"E<gt> ALL"> or C<"NOT IN">,
3055 are expressed in the same way. Of course the C<$sub_stmt> and
3056 its associated bind values can be generated through a former call
3059 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind)
3060 = $sql->select("t1", "c1", {c2 => {"<" => 100},
3061 c3 => {-like => "foo%"}});
3064 bar => \["> ALL ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
3067 In the examples above, the subquery was used as an operator on a column;
3068 but the same principle also applies for a clause within the main C<%where>
3069 hash, like an EXISTS subquery:
3071 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind)
3072 = $sql->select("t1", "*", {c1 => 1, c2 => \"> t0.c0"});
3073 my %where = ( -and => [
3075 \["EXISTS ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
3080 $stmt = "WHERE (foo = ? AND EXISTS (SELECT * FROM t1
3081 WHERE c1 = ? AND c2 > t0.c0))";
3085 Observe that the condition on C<c2> in the subquery refers to
3086 column C<t0.c0> of the main query: this is I<not> a bind
3087 value, so we have to express it through a scalar ref.
3088 Writing C<< c2 => {">" => "t0.c0"} >> would have generated
3089 C<< c2 > ? >> with bind value C<"t0.c0"> ... not exactly
3090 what we wanted here.
3092 Finally, here is an example where a subquery is used
3093 for expressing unary negation:
3095 my ($sub_stmt, @sub_bind)
3096 = $sql->where({age => [{"<" => 10}, {">" => 20}]});
3097 $sub_stmt =~ s/^ where //i; # don't want "WHERE" in the subclause
3099 lname => {like => '%son%'},
3100 \["NOT ($sub_stmt)" => @sub_bind],
3105 $stmt = "lname LIKE ? AND NOT ( age < ? OR age > ? )"
3106 @bind = ('%son%', 10, 20)
3108 =head3 Deprecated usage of Literal SQL
3110 Below are some examples of archaic use of literal SQL. It is shown only as
3111 reference for those who deal with legacy code. Each example has a much
3112 better, cleaner and safer alternative that users should opt for in new code.
3118 my %where = ( requestor => \'IS NOT NULL' )
3120 $stmt = "WHERE requestor IS NOT NULL"
3122 This used to be the way of generating NULL comparisons, before the handling
3123 of C<undef> got formalized. For new code please use the superior syntax as
3124 described in L</Tests for NULL values>.
3128 my %where = ( requestor => \'= submitter' )
3130 $stmt = "WHERE requestor = submitter"
3132 This used to be the only way to compare columns. Use the superior L</-ident>
3133 method for all new code. For example an identifier declared in such a way
3134 will be properly quoted if L</quote_char> is properly set, while the legacy
3135 form will remain as supplied.
3139 my %where = ( is_ready => \"", completed => { '>', '2012-12-21' } )
3141 $stmt = "WHERE completed > ? AND is_ready"
3142 @bind = ('2012-12-21')
3144 Using an empty string literal used to be the only way to express a boolean.
3145 For all new code please use the much more readable
3146 L<-bool|/Unary operators: bool> operator.
3152 These pages could go on for a while, since the nesting of the data
3153 structures this module can handle are pretty much unlimited (the
3154 module implements the C<WHERE> expansion as a recursive function
3155 internally). Your best bet is to "play around" with the module a
3156 little to see how the data structures behave, and choose the best
3157 format for your data based on that.
3159 And of course, all the values above will probably be replaced with
3160 variables gotten from forms or the command line. After all, if you
3161 knew everything ahead of time, you wouldn't have to worry about
3162 dynamically-generating SQL and could just hardwire it into your
3165 =head1 ORDER BY CLAUSES
3167 Some functions take an order by clause. This can either be a scalar (just a
3168 column name), a hashref of C<< { -desc => 'col' } >> or C<< { -asc => 'col' }
3169 >>, a scalarref, an arrayref-ref, or an arrayref of any of the previous
3172 Given | Will Generate
3173 ---------------------------------------------------------------
3175 'colA' | ORDER BY colA
3177 [qw/colA colB/] | ORDER BY colA, colB
3179 {-asc => 'colA'} | ORDER BY colA ASC
3181 {-desc => 'colB'} | ORDER BY colB DESC
3183 ['colA', {-asc => 'colB'}] | ORDER BY colA, colB ASC
3185 { -asc => [qw/colA colB/] } | ORDER BY colA ASC, colB ASC
3187 \'colA DESC' | ORDER BY colA DESC
3189 \[ 'FUNC(colA, ?)', $x ] | ORDER BY FUNC(colA, ?)
3190 | /* ...with $x bound to ? */
3193 { -asc => 'colA' }, | colA ASC,
3194 { -desc => [qw/colB/] }, | colB DESC,
3195 { -asc => [qw/colC colD/] },| colC ASC, colD ASC,
3196 \'colE DESC', | colE DESC,
3197 \[ 'FUNC(colF, ?)', $x ], | FUNC(colF, ?)
3198 ] | /* ...with $x bound to ? */
3199 ===============================================================
3203 =head1 SPECIAL OPERATORS
3205 my $sqlmaker = SQL::Abstract->new(special_ops => [
3209 my ($self, $field, $op, $arg) = @_;
3215 handler => 'method_name',
3219 A "special operator" is a SQL syntactic clause that can be
3220 applied to a field, instead of a usual binary operator.
3223 WHERE field IN (?, ?, ?)
3224 WHERE field BETWEEN ? AND ?
3225 WHERE MATCH(field) AGAINST (?, ?)
3227 Special operators IN and BETWEEN are fairly standard and therefore
3228 are builtin within C<SQL::Abstract> (as the overridable methods
3229 C<_where_field_IN> and C<_where_field_BETWEEN>). For other operators,
3230 like the MATCH .. AGAINST example above which is specific to MySQL,
3231 you can write your own operator handlers - supply a C<special_ops>
3232 argument to the C<new> method. That argument takes an arrayref of
3233 operator definitions; each operator definition is a hashref with two
3240 the regular expression to match the operator
3244 Either a coderef or a plain scalar method name. In both cases
3245 the expected return is C<< ($sql, @bind) >>.
3247 When supplied with a method name, it is simply called on the
3248 L<SQL::Abstract> object as:
3250 $self->$method_name($field, $op, $arg)
3254 $field is the LHS of the operator
3255 $op is the part that matched the handler regex
3258 When supplied with a coderef, it is called as:
3260 $coderef->($self, $field, $op, $arg)
3265 For example, here is an implementation
3266 of the MATCH .. AGAINST syntax for MySQL
3268 my $sqlmaker = SQL::Abstract->new(special_ops => [
3270 # special op for MySql MATCH (field) AGAINST(word1, word2, ...)
3271 {regex => qr/^match$/i,
3273 my ($self, $field, $op, $arg) = @_;
3274 $arg = [$arg] if not ref $arg;
3275 my $label = $self->_quote($field);
3276 my ($placeholder) = $self->_convert('?');
3277 my $placeholders = join ", ", (($placeholder) x @$arg);
3278 my $sql = $self->_sqlcase('match') . " ($label) "
3279 . $self->_sqlcase('against') . " ($placeholders) ";
3280 my @bind = $self->_bindtype($field, @$arg);
3281 return ($sql, @bind);
3288 =head1 UNARY OPERATORS
3290 my $sqlmaker = SQL::Abstract->new(unary_ops => [
3294 my ($self, $op, $arg) = @_;
3300 handler => 'method_name',
3304 A "unary operator" is a SQL syntactic clause that can be
3305 applied to a field - the operator goes before the field
3307 You can write your own operator handlers - supply a C<unary_ops>
3308 argument to the C<new> method. That argument takes an arrayref of
3309 operator definitions; each operator definition is a hashref with two
3316 the regular expression to match the operator
3320 Either a coderef or a plain scalar method name. In both cases
3321 the expected return is C<< $sql >>.
3323 When supplied with a method name, it is simply called on the
3324 L<SQL::Abstract> object as:
3326 $self->$method_name($op, $arg)
3330 $op is the part that matched the handler regex
3331 $arg is the RHS or argument of the operator
3333 When supplied with a coderef, it is called as:
3335 $coderef->($self, $op, $arg)
3343 Thanks to some benchmarking by Mark Stosberg, it turns out that
3344 this module is many orders of magnitude faster than using C<DBIx::Abstract>.
3345 I must admit this wasn't an intentional design issue, but it's a
3346 byproduct of the fact that you get to control your C<DBI> handles
3349 To maximize performance, use a code snippet like the following:
3351 # prepare a statement handle using the first row
3352 # and then reuse it for the rest of the rows
3354 for my $href (@array_of_hashrefs) {
3355 $stmt ||= $sql->insert('table', $href);
3356 $sth ||= $dbh->prepare($stmt);
3357 $sth->execute($sql->values($href));
3360 The reason this works is because the keys in your C<$href> are sorted
3361 internally by B<SQL::Abstract>. Thus, as long as your data retains
3362 the same structure, you only have to generate the SQL the first time
3363 around. On subsequent queries, simply use the C<values> function provided
3364 by this module to return your values in the correct order.
3366 However this depends on the values having the same type - if, for
3367 example, the values of a where clause may either have values
3368 (resulting in sql of the form C<column = ?> with a single bind
3369 value), or alternatively the values might be C<undef> (resulting in
3370 sql of the form C<column IS NULL> with no bind value) then the
3371 caching technique suggested will not work.
3375 If you use my C<CGI::FormBuilder> module at all, you'll hopefully
3376 really like this part (I do, at least). Building up a complex query
3377 can be as simple as the following:
3384 use CGI::FormBuilder;
3387 my $form = CGI::FormBuilder->new(...);
3388 my $sql = SQL::Abstract->new;
3390 if ($form->submitted) {
3391 my $field = $form->field;
3392 my $id = delete $field->{id};
3393 my($stmt, @bind) = $sql->update('table', $field, {id => $id});
3396 Of course, you would still have to connect using C<DBI> to run the
3397 query, but the point is that if you make your form look like your
3398 table, the actual query script can be extremely simplistic.
3400 If you're B<REALLY> lazy (I am), check out C<HTML::QuickTable> for
3401 a fast interface to returning and formatting data. I frequently
3402 use these three modules together to write complex database query
3403 apps in under 50 lines.
3405 =head1 HOW TO CONTRIBUTE
3407 Contributions are always welcome, in all usable forms (we especially
3408 welcome documentation improvements). The delivery methods include git-
3409 or unified-diff formatted patches, GitHub pull requests, or plain bug
3410 reports either via RT or the Mailing list. Contributors are generally
3411 granted full access to the official repository after their first several
3412 patches pass successful review.
3414 This project is maintained in a git repository. The code and related tools are
3415 accessible at the following locations:
3419 =item * Official repo: L<git://git.shadowcat.co.uk/dbsrgits/SQL-Abstract.git>
3421 =item * Official gitweb: L<http://git.shadowcat.co.uk/gitweb/gitweb.cgi?p=dbsrgits/SQL-Abstract.git>
3423 =item * GitHub mirror: L<https://github.com/dbsrgits/sql-abstract>
3425 =item * Authorized committers: L<ssh://dbsrgits@git.shadowcat.co.uk/SQL-Abstract.git>
3431 Version 1.50 was a major internal refactoring of C<SQL::Abstract>.
3432 Great care has been taken to preserve the I<published> behavior
3433 documented in previous versions in the 1.* family; however,
3434 some features that were previously undocumented, or behaved
3435 differently from the documentation, had to be changed in order
3436 to clarify the semantics. Hence, client code that was relying
3437 on some dark areas of C<SQL::Abstract> v1.*
3438 B<might behave differently> in v1.50.
3440 The main changes are:
3446 support for literal SQL through the C<< \ [ $sql, @bind ] >> syntax.
3450 support for the { operator => \"..." } construct (to embed literal SQL)
3454 support for the { operator => \["...", @bind] } construct (to embed literal SQL with bind values)
3458 optional support for L<array datatypes|/"Inserting and Updating Arrays">
3462 defensive programming: check arguments
3466 fixed bug with global logic, which was previously implemented
3467 through global variables yielding side-effects. Prior versions would
3468 interpret C<< [ {cond1, cond2}, [cond3, cond4] ] >>
3469 as C<< "(cond1 AND cond2) OR (cond3 AND cond4)" >>.
3470 Now this is interpreted
3471 as C<< "(cond1 AND cond2) OR (cond3 OR cond4)" >>.
3476 fixed semantics of _bindtype on array args
3480 dropped the C<_anoncopy> of the %where tree. No longer necessary,
3481 we just avoid shifting arrays within that tree.
3485 dropped the C<_modlogic> function
3489 =head1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
3491 There are a number of individuals that have really helped out with
3492 this module. Unfortunately, most of them submitted bugs via CPAN
3493 so I have no idea who they are! But the people I do know are:
3495 Ash Berlin (order_by hash term support)
3496 Matt Trout (DBIx::Class support)
3497 Mark Stosberg (benchmarking)
3498 Chas Owens (initial "IN" operator support)
3499 Philip Collins (per-field SQL functions)
3500 Eric Kolve (hashref "AND" support)
3501 Mike Fragassi (enhancements to "BETWEEN" and "LIKE")
3502 Dan Kubb (support for "quote_char" and "name_sep")
3503 Guillermo Roditi (patch to cleanup "IN" and "BETWEEN", fix and tests for _order_by)
3504 Laurent Dami (internal refactoring, extensible list of special operators, literal SQL)
3505 Norbert Buchmuller (support for literal SQL in hashpair, misc. fixes & tests)
3506 Peter Rabbitson (rewrite of SQLA::Test, misc. fixes & tests)
3507 Oliver Charles (support for "RETURNING" after "INSERT")
3513 L<DBIx::Class>, L<DBIx::Abstract>, L<CGI::FormBuilder>, L<HTML::QuickTable>.
3517 Copyright (c) 2001-2007 Nathan Wiger <nwiger@cpan.org>. All Rights Reserved.
3519 This module is actively maintained by Matt Trout <mst@shadowcatsystems.co.uk>
3521 For support, your best bet is to try the C<DBIx::Class> users mailing list.
3522 While not an official support venue, C<DBIx::Class> makes heavy use of
3523 C<SQL::Abstract>, and as such list members there are very familiar with
3524 how to create queries.
3528 This module is free software; you may copy this under the same
3529 terms as perl itself (either the GNU General Public License or
3530 the Artistic License)