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1 | =head1 NAME |
2 | |
3 | perlsyn - Perl syntax |
4 | |
5 | =head1 DESCRIPTION |
6 | |
7 | A Perl script consists of a sequence of declarations and statements. |
8 | The only things that need to be declared in Perl are report formats |
9 | and subroutines. See the sections below for more information on those |
10 | declarations. All uninitialized user-created objects are assumed to |
11 | start with a null or 0 value until they are defined by some explicit |
12 | operation such as assignment. (Though you can get warnings about the |
13 | use of undefined values if you like.) The sequence of statements is |
14 | executed just once, unlike in B<sed> and B<awk> scripts, where the |
15 | sequence of statements is executed for each input line. While this means |
16 | that you must explicitly loop over the lines of your input file (or |
17 | files), it also means you have much more control over which files and |
18 | which lines you look at. (Actually, I'm lying--it is possible to do an |
19 | implicit loop with either the B<-n> or B<-p> switch. It's just not the |
20 | mandatory default like it is in B<sed> and B<awk>.) |
21 | |
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22 | =head2 Declarations |
23 | |
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24 | Perl is, for the most part, a free-form language. (The only |
25 | exception to this is format declarations, for obvious reasons.) Comments |
26 | are indicated by the "#" character, and extend to the end of the line. If |
27 | you attempt to use C</* */> C-style comments, it will be interpreted |
28 | either as division or pattern matching, depending on the context, and C++ |
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29 | C<//> comments just look like a null regular expression, so don't do |
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30 | that. |
31 | |
32 | A declaration can be put anywhere a statement can, but has no effect on |
33 | the execution of the primary sequence of statements--declarations all |
34 | take effect at compile time. Typically all the declarations are put at |
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35 | the beginning or the end of the script. However, if you're using |
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36 | lexically-scoped private variables created with my(), you'll have to make sure |
37 | your format or subroutine definition is within the same block scope |
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38 | as the my if you expect to be able to access those private variables. |
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39 | |
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40 | Declaring a subroutine allows a subroutine name to be used as if it were a |
41 | list operator from that point forward in the program. You can declare a |
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42 | subroutine without defining it by saying C<sub name>, thus: |
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43 | |
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44 | sub myname; |
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45 | $me = myname $0 or die "can't get myname"; |
46 | |
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47 | Note that it functions as a list operator, not as a unary operator; so |
48 | be careful to use C<or> instead of C<||> in this case. However, if |
49 | you were to declare the subroutine as C<sub myname ($)>, then |
50 | C<myname> would functonion as a unary operator, so either C<or> or |
51 | C<||> would work. |
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52 | |
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53 | Subroutines declarations can also be loaded up with the C<require> statement |
54 | or both loaded and imported into your namespace with a C<use> statement. |
55 | See L<perlmod> for details on this. |
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56 | |
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57 | A statement sequence may contain declarations of lexically-scoped |
58 | variables, but apart from declaring a variable name, the declaration acts |
59 | like an ordinary statement, and is elaborated within the sequence of |
60 | statements as if it were an ordinary statement. That means it actually |
61 | has both compile-time and run-time effects. |
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62 | |
63 | =head2 Simple statements |
64 | |
65 | The only kind of simple statement is an expression evaluated for its |
66 | side effects. Every simple statement must be terminated with a |
67 | semicolon, unless it is the final statement in a block, in which case |
68 | the semicolon is optional. (A semicolon is still encouraged there if the |
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69 | block takes up more than one line, because you may eventually add another line.) |
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70 | Note that there are some operators like C<eval {}> and C<do {}> that look |
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71 | like compound statements, but aren't (they're just TERMs in an expression), |
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72 | and thus need an explicit termination if used as the last item in a statement. |
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73 | |
74 | Any simple statement may optionally be followed by a I<SINGLE> modifier, |
75 | just before the terminating semicolon (or block ending). The possible |
76 | modifiers are: |
77 | |
78 | if EXPR |
79 | unless EXPR |
80 | while EXPR |
81 | until EXPR |
82 | |
83 | The C<if> and C<unless> modifiers have the expected semantics, |
84 | presuming you're a speaker of English. The C<while> and C<until> |
85 | modifiers also have the usual "while loop" semantics (conditional |
86 | evaluated first), except when applied to a do-BLOCK (or to the |
87 | now-deprecated do-SUBROUTINE statement), in which case the block |
88 | executes once before the conditional is evaluated. This is so that you |
89 | can write loops like: |
90 | |
91 | do { |
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92 | $line = <STDIN>; |
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93 | ... |
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94 | } until $line eq ".\n"; |
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95 | |
96 | See L<perlfunc/do>. Note also that the loop control |
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97 | statements described later will I<NOT> work in this construct, because |
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98 | modifiers don't take loop labels. Sorry. You can always wrap |
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99 | another block around it to do that sort of thing. |
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100 | |
101 | =head2 Compound statements |
102 | |
103 | In Perl, a sequence of statements that defines a scope is called a block. |
104 | Sometimes a block is delimited by the file containing it (in the case |
105 | of a required file, or the program as a whole), and sometimes a block |
106 | is delimited by the extent of a string (in the case of an eval). |
107 | |
108 | But generally, a block is delimited by curly brackets, also known as braces. |
109 | We will call this syntactic construct a BLOCK. |
110 | |
111 | The following compound statements may be used to control flow: |
112 | |
113 | if (EXPR) BLOCK |
114 | if (EXPR) BLOCK else BLOCK |
115 | if (EXPR) BLOCK elsif (EXPR) BLOCK ... else BLOCK |
116 | LABEL while (EXPR) BLOCK |
117 | LABEL while (EXPR) BLOCK continue BLOCK |
118 | LABEL for (EXPR; EXPR; EXPR) BLOCK |
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119 | LABEL foreach VAR (LIST) BLOCK |
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120 | LABEL BLOCK continue BLOCK |
121 | |
122 | Note that, unlike C and Pascal, these are defined in terms of BLOCKs, |
123 | not statements. This means that the curly brackets are I<required>--no |
124 | dangling statements allowed. If you want to write conditionals without |
125 | curly brackets there are several other ways to do it. The following |
126 | all do the same thing: |
127 | |
128 | if (!open(FOO)) { die "Can't open $FOO: $!"; } |
129 | die "Can't open $FOO: $!" unless open(FOO); |
130 | open(FOO) or die "Can't open $FOO: $!"; # FOO or bust! |
131 | open(FOO) ? 'hi mom' : die "Can't open $FOO: $!"; |
132 | # a bit exotic, that last one |
133 | |
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134 | The C<if> statement is straightforward. Because BLOCKs are always |
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135 | bounded by curly brackets, there is never any ambiguity about which |
136 | C<if> an C<else> goes with. If you use C<unless> in place of C<if>, |
137 | the sense of the test is reversed. |
138 | |
139 | The C<while> statement executes the block as long as the expression is |
140 | true (does not evaluate to the null string or 0 or "0"). The LABEL is |
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141 | optional, and if present, consists of an identifier followed by a colon. |
142 | The LABEL identifies the loop for the loop control statements C<next>, |
143 | C<last>, and C<redo>. If the LABEL is omitted, the loop control statement |
144 | refers to the innermost enclosing loop. This may include dynamically |
145 | looking back your call-stack at run time to find the LABEL. Such |
146 | desperate behavior triggers a warning if you use the B<-w> flag. |
147 | |
148 | If there is a C<continue> BLOCK, it is always executed just before the |
149 | conditional is about to be evaluated again, just like the third part of a |
150 | C<for> loop in C. Thus it can be used to increment a loop variable, even |
151 | when the loop has been continued via the C<next> statement (which is |
152 | similar to the C C<continue> statement). |
153 | |
154 | =head2 Loop Control |
155 | |
156 | The C<next> command is like the C<continue> statement in C; it starts |
157 | the next iteration of the loop: |
158 | |
159 | LINE: while (<STDIN>) { |
160 | next LINE if /^#/; # discard comments |
161 | ... |
162 | } |
163 | |
164 | The C<last> command is like the C<break> statement in C (as used in |
165 | loops); it immediately exits the loop in question. The |
166 | C<continue> block, if any, is not executed: |
167 | |
168 | LINE: while (<STDIN>) { |
169 | last LINE if /^$/; # exit when done with header |
170 | ... |
171 | } |
172 | |
173 | The C<redo> command restarts the loop block without evaluating the |
174 | conditional again. The C<continue> block, if any, is I<not> executed. |
175 | This command is normally used by programs that want to lie to themselves |
176 | about what was just input. |
177 | |
178 | For example, when processing a file like F</etc/termcap>. |
179 | If your input lines might end in backslashes to indicate continuation, you |
180 | want to skip ahead and get the next record. |
181 | |
182 | while (<>) { |
183 | chomp; |
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184 | if (s/\\$//) { |
185 | $_ .= <>; |
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186 | redo unless eof(); |
187 | } |
188 | # now process $_ |
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189 | } |
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190 | |
191 | which is Perl short-hand for the more explicitly written version: |
192 | |
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193 | LINE: while (defined($line = <ARGV>)) { |
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194 | chomp($line); |
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195 | if ($line =~ s/\\$//) { |
196 | $line .= <ARGV>; |
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197 | redo LINE unless eof(); # not eof(ARGV)! |
198 | } |
199 | # now process $line |
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200 | } |
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201 | |
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202 | Or here's a simpleminded Pascal comment stripper (warning: assumes no |
203 | { or } in strings). |
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204 | |
205 | LINE: while (<STDIN>) { |
206 | while (s|({.*}.*){.*}|$1 |) {} |
207 | s|{.*}| |; |
208 | if (s|{.*| |) { |
209 | $front = $_; |
210 | while (<STDIN>) { |
211 | if (/}/) { # end of comment? |
212 | s|^|$front{|; |
213 | redo LINE; |
214 | } |
215 | } |
216 | } |
217 | print; |
218 | } |
219 | |
220 | Note that if there were a C<continue> block on the above code, it would get |
221 | executed even on discarded lines. |
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222 | |
223 | If the word C<while> is replaced by the word C<until>, the sense of the |
224 | test is reversed, but the conditional is still tested before the first |
225 | iteration. |
226 | |
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227 | The form C<while/if BLOCK BLOCK>, available in Perl 4, is no longer |
228 | available. Replace any occurrence of C<if BLOCK> by C<if (do BLOCK)>. |
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229 | |
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230 | =head2 For Loops |
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231 | |
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232 | Perl's C-style C<for> loop works exactly like the corresponding C<while> loop; |
233 | that means that this: |
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234 | |
235 | for ($i = 1; $i < 10; $i++) { |
236 | ... |
237 | } |
238 | |
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239 | is the same as this: |
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240 | |
241 | $i = 1; |
242 | while ($i < 10) { |
243 | ... |
244 | } continue { |
245 | $i++; |
246 | } |
247 | |
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248 | (There is one minor difference: The first form implies a lexical scope |
249 | for variables declared with C<my> in the initialization expression.) |
250 | |
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251 | Besides the normal array index looping, C<for> can lend itself |
252 | to many other interesting applications. Here's one that avoids the |
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253 | problem you get into if you explicitly test for end-of-file on |
254 | an interactive file descriptor causing your program to appear to |
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255 | hang. |
256 | |
257 | $on_a_tty = -t STDIN && -t STDOUT; |
258 | sub prompt { print "yes? " if $on_a_tty } |
259 | for ( prompt(); <STDIN>; prompt() ) { |
260 | # do something |
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261 | } |
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262 | |
263 | =head2 Foreach Loops |
264 | |
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265 | The C<foreach> loop iterates over a normal list value and sets the |
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266 | variable VAR to be each element of the list in turn. If the variable |
267 | is preceded with the keyword C<my>, then it is lexically scoped, and |
268 | is therefore visible only within the loop. Otherwise, the variable is |
269 | implicitly local to the loop and regains its former value upon exiting |
270 | the loop. If the variable was previously declared with C<my>, it uses |
271 | that variable instead of the global one, but it's still localized to |
272 | the loop. (Note that a lexically scoped variable can cause problems |
273 | with you have subroutine or format declarations.) |
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274 | |
275 | The C<foreach> keyword is actually a synonym for the C<for> keyword, so |
276 | you can use C<foreach> for readability or C<for> for brevity. If VAR is |
277 | omitted, $_ is set to each value. If LIST is an actual array (as opposed |
278 | to an expression returning a list value), you can modify each element of |
279 | the array by modifying VAR inside the loop. That's because the C<foreach> |
280 | loop index variable is an implicit alias for each item in the list that |
281 | you're looping over. |
282 | |
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283 | Examples: |
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284 | |
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285 | for (@ary) { s/foo/bar/ } |
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286 | |
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287 | foreach my $elem (@elements) { |
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288 | $elem *= 2; |
289 | } |
290 | |
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291 | for $count (10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1,'BOOM') { |
292 | print $count, "\n"; sleep(1); |
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293 | } |
294 | |
295 | for (1..15) { print "Merry Christmas\n"; } |
296 | |
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297 | foreach $item (split(/:[\\\n:]*/, $ENV{TERMCAP})) { |
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298 | print "Item: $item\n"; |
299 | } |
300 | |
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301 | Here's how a C programmer might code up a particular algorithm in Perl: |
302 | |
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303 | for (my $i = 0; $i < @ary1; $i++) { |
304 | for (my $j = 0; $j < @ary2; $j++) { |
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305 | if ($ary1[$i] > $ary2[$j]) { |
306 | last; # can't go to outer :-( |
307 | } |
308 | $ary1[$i] += $ary2[$j]; |
309 | } |
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310 | # this is where that last takes me |
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311 | } |
312 | |
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313 | Whereas here's how a Perl programmer more comfortable with the idiom might |
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314 | do it: |
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315 | |
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316 | OUTER: foreach my $wid (@ary1) { |
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317 | INNER: foreach my $jet (@ary2) { |
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318 | next OUTER if $wid > $jet; |
319 | $wid += $jet; |
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320 | } |
321 | } |
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322 | |
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323 | See how much easier this is? It's cleaner, safer, and faster. It's |
324 | cleaner because it's less noisy. It's safer because if code gets added |
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325 | between the inner and outer loops later on, the new code won't be |
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326 | accidentally executed. The C<next> explicitly iterates the other loop |
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327 | rather than merely terminating the inner one. And it's faster because |
328 | Perl executes a C<foreach> statement more rapidly than it would the |
329 | equivalent C<for> loop. |
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330 | |
331 | =head2 Basic BLOCKs and Switch Statements |
332 | |
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333 | A BLOCK by itself (labeled or not) is semantically equivalent to a |
334 | loop that executes once. Thus you can use any of the loop control |
335 | statements in it to leave or restart the block. (Note that this is |
336 | I<NOT> true in C<eval{}>, C<sub{}>, or contrary to popular belief |
337 | C<do{}> blocks, which do I<NOT> count as loops.) The C<continue> |
338 | block is optional. |
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339 | |
340 | The BLOCK construct is particularly nice for doing case |
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341 | structures. |
342 | |
343 | SWITCH: { |
344 | if (/^abc/) { $abc = 1; last SWITCH; } |
345 | if (/^def/) { $def = 1; last SWITCH; } |
346 | if (/^xyz/) { $xyz = 1; last SWITCH; } |
347 | $nothing = 1; |
348 | } |
349 | |
350 | There is no official switch statement in Perl, because there are |
351 | already several ways to write the equivalent. In addition to the |
352 | above, you could write |
353 | |
354 | SWITCH: { |
355 | $abc = 1, last SWITCH if /^abc/; |
356 | $def = 1, last SWITCH if /^def/; |
357 | $xyz = 1, last SWITCH if /^xyz/; |
358 | $nothing = 1; |
359 | } |
360 | |
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361 | (That's actually not as strange as it looks once you realize that you can |
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362 | use loop control "operators" within an expression, That's just the normal |
363 | C comma operator.) |
364 | |
365 | or |
366 | |
367 | SWITCH: { |
368 | /^abc/ && do { $abc = 1; last SWITCH; }; |
369 | /^def/ && do { $def = 1; last SWITCH; }; |
370 | /^xyz/ && do { $xyz = 1; last SWITCH; }; |
371 | $nothing = 1; |
372 | } |
373 | |
374 | or formatted so it stands out more as a "proper" switch statement: |
375 | |
376 | SWITCH: { |
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377 | /^abc/ && do { |
378 | $abc = 1; |
379 | last SWITCH; |
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380 | }; |
381 | |
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382 | /^def/ && do { |
383 | $def = 1; |
384 | last SWITCH; |
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385 | }; |
386 | |
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387 | /^xyz/ && do { |
388 | $xyz = 1; |
389 | last SWITCH; |
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390 | }; |
391 | $nothing = 1; |
392 | } |
393 | |
394 | or |
395 | |
396 | SWITCH: { |
397 | /^abc/ and $abc = 1, last SWITCH; |
398 | /^def/ and $def = 1, last SWITCH; |
399 | /^xyz/ and $xyz = 1, last SWITCH; |
400 | $nothing = 1; |
401 | } |
402 | |
403 | or even, horrors, |
404 | |
405 | if (/^abc/) |
406 | { $abc = 1 } |
407 | elsif (/^def/) |
408 | { $def = 1 } |
409 | elsif (/^xyz/) |
410 | { $xyz = 1 } |
411 | else |
412 | { $nothing = 1 } |
413 | |
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414 | |
415 | A common idiom for a switch statement is to use C<foreach>'s aliasing to make |
416 | a temporary assignment to $_ for convenient matching: |
417 | |
418 | SWITCH: for ($where) { |
419 | /In Card Names/ && do { push @flags, '-e'; last; }; |
420 | /Anywhere/ && do { push @flags, '-h'; last; }; |
421 | /In Rulings/ && do { last; }; |
422 | die "unknown value for form variable where: `$where'"; |
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423 | } |
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424 | |
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425 | Another interesting approach to a switch statement is arrange |
426 | for a C<do> block to return the proper value: |
427 | |
428 | $amode = do { |
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429 | if ($flag & O_RDONLY) { "r" } |
430 | elsif ($flag & O_WRONLY) { ($flag & O_APPEND) ? "a" : "w" } |
cb1a09d0 |
431 | elsif ($flag & O_RDWR) { |
432 | if ($flag & O_CREAT) { "w+" } |
c07a80fd |
433 | else { ($flag & O_APPEND) ? "a+" : "r+" } |
cb1a09d0 |
434 | } |
435 | }; |
436 | |
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437 | =head2 Goto |
438 | |
439 | Although not for the faint of heart, Perl does support a C<goto> statement. |
440 | A loop's LABEL is not actually a valid target for a C<goto>; |
441 | it's just the name of the loop. There are three forms: goto-LABEL, |
442 | goto-EXPR, and goto-&NAME. |
443 | |
444 | The goto-LABEL form finds the statement labeled with LABEL and resumes |
445 | execution there. It may not be used to go into any construct that |
446 | requires initialization, such as a subroutine or a foreach loop. It |
447 | also can't be used to go into a construct that is optimized away. It |
448 | can be used to go almost anywhere else within the dynamic scope, |
449 | including out of subroutines, but it's usually better to use some other |
450 | construct such as last or die. The author of Perl has never felt the |
451 | need to use this form of goto (in Perl, that is--C is another matter). |
452 | |
453 | The goto-EXPR form expects a label name, whose scope will be resolved |
454 | dynamically. This allows for computed gotos per FORTRAN, but isn't |
455 | necessarily recommended if you're optimizing for maintainability: |
456 | |
457 | goto ("FOO", "BAR", "GLARCH")[$i]; |
458 | |
459 | The goto-&NAME form is highly magical, and substitutes a call to the |
460 | named subroutine for the currently running subroutine. This is used by |
461 | AUTOLOAD() subroutines that wish to load another subroutine and then |
462 | pretend that the other subroutine had been called in the first place |
463 | (except that any modifications to @_ in the current subroutine are |
464 | propagated to the other subroutine.) After the C<goto>, not even caller() |
465 | will be able to tell that this routine was called first. |
466 | |
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467 | In almost all cases like this, it's usually a far, far better idea to use the |
468 | structured control flow mechanisms of C<next>, C<last>, or C<redo> instead of |
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469 | resorting to a C<goto>. For certain applications, the catch and throw pair of |
470 | C<eval{}> and die() for exception processing can also be a prudent approach. |
cb1a09d0 |
471 | |
472 | =head2 PODs: Embedded Documentation |
473 | |
474 | Perl has a mechanism for intermixing documentation with source code. |
c07a80fd |
475 | While it's expecting the beginning of a new statement, if the compiler |
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476 | encounters a line that begins with an equal sign and a word, like this |
477 | |
478 | =head1 Here There Be Pods! |
479 | |
480 | Then that text and all remaining text up through and including a line |
481 | beginning with C<=cut> will be ignored. The format of the intervening |
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482 | text is described in L<perlpod>. |
cb1a09d0 |
483 | |
484 | This allows you to intermix your source code |
485 | and your documentation text freely, as in |
486 | |
487 | =item snazzle($) |
488 | |
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489 | The snazzle() function will behave in the most spectacular |
cb1a09d0 |
490 | form that you can possibly imagine, not even excepting |
491 | cybernetic pyrotechnics. |
492 | |
493 | =cut back to the compiler, nuff of this pod stuff! |
494 | |
495 | sub snazzle($) { |
496 | my $thingie = shift; |
497 | ......... |
54310121 |
498 | } |
cb1a09d0 |
499 | |
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500 | Note that pod translators should look at only paragraphs beginning |
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501 | with a pod directive (it makes parsing easier), whereas the compiler |
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502 | actually knows to look for pod escapes even in the middle of a |
cb1a09d0 |
503 | paragraph. This means that the following secret stuff will be |
504 | ignored by both the compiler and the translators. |
505 | |
506 | $a=3; |
507 | =secret stuff |
508 | warn "Neither POD nor CODE!?" |
509 | =cut back |
510 | print "got $a\n"; |
511 | |
512 | You probably shouldn't rely upon the warn() being podded out forever. |
513 | Not all pod translators are well-behaved in this regard, and perhaps |
514 | the compiler will become pickier. |
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515 | |
516 | One may also use pod directives to quickly comment out a section |
517 | of code. |
518 | |
519 | =head2 Plain Old Comments (Not!) |
520 | |
521 | Much like the C preprocessor, perl can process line directives. Using |
522 | this, one can control perl's idea of filenames and line numbers in |
523 | error or warning messages (especially for strings that are processed |
524 | with eval()). The syntax for this mechanism is the same as for most |
525 | C preprocessors: it matches the regular expression |
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526 | C</^#\s*line\s+(\d+)\s*(?:\s"([^"]*)")?/> with C<$1> being the line |
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527 | number for the next line, and C<$2> being the optional filename |
528 | (specified within quotes). |
529 | |
530 | Here are some examples that you should be able to type into your command |
531 | shell: |
532 | |
533 | % perl |
534 | # line 200 "bzzzt" |
535 | # the `#' on the previous line must be the first char on line |
536 | die 'foo'; |
537 | __END__ |
538 | foo at bzzzt line 201. |
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539 | |
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540 | % perl |
541 | # line 200 "bzzzt" |
542 | eval qq[\n#line 2001 ""\ndie 'foo']; print $@; |
543 | __END__ |
544 | foo at - line 2001. |
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545 | |
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546 | % perl |
547 | eval qq[\n#line 200 "foo bar"\ndie 'foo']; print $@; |
548 | __END__ |
549 | foo at foo bar line 200. |
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550 | |
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551 | % perl |
552 | # line 345 "goop" |
553 | eval "\n#line " . __LINE__ . ' "' . __FILE__ ."\"\ndie 'foo'"; |
554 | print $@; |
555 | __END__ |
556 | foo at goop line 345. |
557 | |
558 | =cut |