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1 | =head1 NAME |
2 | |
3 | perlop - Perl operators and precedence |
4 | |
5 | =head1 SYNOPSIS |
6 | |
7 | Perl operators have the following associativity and precedence, |
8 | listed from highest precedence to lowest. Note that all operators |
9 | borrowed from C keep the same precedence relationship with each other, |
10 | even where C's precedence is slightly screwy. (This makes learning |
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11 | Perl easier for C folks.) With very few exceptions, these all |
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12 | operate on scalar values only, not array values. |
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13 | |
14 | left terms and list operators (leftward) |
15 | left -> |
16 | nonassoc ++ -- |
17 | right ** |
18 | right ! ~ \ and unary + and - |
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19 | left =~ !~ |
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20 | left * / % x |
21 | left + - . |
22 | left << >> |
23 | nonassoc named unary operators |
24 | nonassoc < > <= >= lt gt le ge |
25 | nonassoc == != <=> eq ne cmp |
26 | left & |
27 | left | ^ |
28 | left && |
29 | left || |
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30 | nonassoc .. ... |
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31 | right ?: |
32 | right = += -= *= etc. |
33 | left , => |
34 | nonassoc list operators (rightward) |
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35 | right not |
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36 | left and |
37 | left or xor |
38 | |
39 | In the following sections, these operators are covered in precedence order. |
40 | |
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41 | Many operators can be overloaded for objects. See L<overload>. |
42 | |
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43 | =head1 DESCRIPTION |
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44 | |
45 | =head2 Terms and List Operators (Leftward) |
46 | |
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47 | A TERM has the highest precedence in Perl. They includes variables, |
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48 | quote and quote-like operators, any expression in parentheses, |
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49 | and any function whose arguments are parenthesized. Actually, there |
50 | aren't really functions in this sense, just list operators and unary |
51 | operators behaving as functions because you put parentheses around |
52 | the arguments. These are all documented in L<perlfunc>. |
53 | |
54 | If any list operator (print(), etc.) or any unary operator (chdir(), etc.) |
55 | is followed by a left parenthesis as the next token, the operator and |
56 | arguments within parentheses are taken to be of highest precedence, |
57 | just like a normal function call. |
58 | |
59 | In the absence of parentheses, the precedence of list operators such as |
60 | C<print>, C<sort>, or C<chmod> is either very high or very low depending on |
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61 | whether you are looking at the left side or the right side of the operator. |
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62 | For example, in |
63 | |
64 | @ary = (1, 3, sort 4, 2); |
65 | print @ary; # prints 1324 |
66 | |
67 | the commas on the right of the sort are evaluated before the sort, but |
68 | the commas on the left are evaluated after. In other words, list |
69 | operators tend to gobble up all the arguments that follow them, and |
70 | then act like a simple TERM with regard to the preceding expression. |
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71 | Note that you have to be careful with parentheses: |
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72 | |
73 | # These evaluate exit before doing the print: |
74 | print($foo, exit); # Obviously not what you want. |
75 | print $foo, exit; # Nor is this. |
76 | |
77 | # These do the print before evaluating exit: |
78 | (print $foo), exit; # This is what you want. |
79 | print($foo), exit; # Or this. |
80 | print ($foo), exit; # Or even this. |
81 | |
82 | Also note that |
83 | |
84 | print ($foo & 255) + 1, "\n"; |
85 | |
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86 | probably doesn't do what you expect at first glance. See |
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87 | L<Named Unary Operators> for more discussion of this. |
88 | |
89 | Also parsed as terms are the C<do {}> and C<eval {}> constructs, as |
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90 | well as subroutine and method calls, and the anonymous |
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91 | constructors C<[]> and C<{}>. |
92 | |
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93 | See also L<Quote and Quote-like Operators> toward the end of this section, |
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94 | as well as L<"I/O Operators">. |
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95 | |
96 | =head2 The Arrow Operator |
97 | |
98 | Just as in C and C++, "C<-E<gt>>" is an infix dereference operator. If the |
99 | right side is either a C<[...]> or C<{...}> subscript, then the left side |
100 | must be either a hard or symbolic reference to an array or hash (or |
101 | a location capable of holding a hard reference, if it's an lvalue (assignable)). |
102 | See L<perlref>. |
103 | |
104 | Otherwise, the right side is a method name or a simple scalar variable |
105 | containing the method name, and the left side must either be an object |
106 | (a blessed reference) or a class name (that is, a package name). |
107 | See L<perlobj>. |
108 | |
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109 | =head2 Auto-increment and Auto-decrement |
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110 | |
111 | "++" and "--" work as in C. That is, if placed before a variable, they |
112 | increment or decrement the variable before returning the value, and if |
113 | placed after, increment or decrement the variable after returning the value. |
114 | |
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115 | The auto-increment operator has a little extra builtin magic to it. If |
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116 | you increment a variable that is numeric, or that has ever been used in |
117 | a numeric context, you get a normal increment. If, however, the |
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118 | variable has been used in only string contexts since it was set, and |
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119 | has a value that is not the empty string and matches the pattern |
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120 | C</^[a-zA-Z]*[0-9]*$/>, the increment is done as a string, preserving each |
121 | character within its range, with carry: |
122 | |
123 | print ++($foo = '99'); # prints '100' |
124 | print ++($foo = 'a0'); # prints 'a1' |
125 | print ++($foo = 'Az'); # prints 'Ba' |
126 | print ++($foo = 'zz'); # prints 'aaa' |
127 | |
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128 | The auto-decrement operator is not magical. |
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129 | |
130 | =head2 Exponentiation |
131 | |
132 | Binary "**" is the exponentiation operator. Note that it binds even more |
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133 | tightly than unary minus, so -2**4 is -(2**4), not (-2)**4. (This is |
134 | implemented using C's pow(3) function, which actually works on doubles |
135 | internally.) |
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136 | |
137 | =head2 Symbolic Unary Operators |
138 | |
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139 | Unary "!" performs logical negation, i.e., "not". See also C<not> for a lower |
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140 | precedence version of this. |
141 | |
142 | Unary "-" performs arithmetic negation if the operand is numeric. If |
143 | the operand is an identifier, a string consisting of a minus sign |
144 | concatenated with the identifier is returned. Otherwise, if the string |
145 | starts with a plus or minus, a string starting with the opposite sign |
146 | is returned. One effect of these rules is that C<-bareword> is equivalent |
147 | to C<"-bareword">. |
148 | |
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149 | Unary "~" performs bitwise negation, i.e., 1's complement. For example, |
150 | C<0666 &~ 027> is 0640. (See also L<Integer Arithmetic> and L<Bitwise |
151 | String Operators>.) |
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152 | |
153 | Unary "+" has no effect whatsoever, even on strings. It is useful |
154 | syntactically for separating a function name from a parenthesized expression |
155 | that would otherwise be interpreted as the complete list of function |
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156 | arguments. (See examples above under L<Terms and List Operators (Leftward)>.) |
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157 | |
158 | Unary "\" creates a reference to whatever follows it. See L<perlref>. |
159 | Do not confuse this behavior with the behavior of backslash within a |
160 | string, although both forms do convey the notion of protecting the next |
161 | thing from interpretation. |
162 | |
163 | =head2 Binding Operators |
164 | |
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165 | Binary "=~" binds a scalar expression to a pattern match. Certain operations |
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166 | search or modify the string $_ by default. This operator makes that kind |
167 | of operation work on some other string. The right argument is a search |
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168 | pattern, substitution, or transliteration. The left argument is what is |
169 | supposed to be searched, substituted, or transliterated instead of the default |
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170 | $_. The return value indicates the success of the operation. (If the |
171 | right argument is an expression rather than a search pattern, |
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172 | substitution, or transliteration, it is interpreted as a search pattern at run |
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173 | time. This can be is less efficient than an explicit search, because the |
174 | pattern must be compiled every time the expression is evaluated. |
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175 | |
176 | Binary "!~" is just like "=~" except the return value is negated in |
177 | the logical sense. |
178 | |
179 | =head2 Multiplicative Operators |
180 | |
181 | Binary "*" multiplies two numbers. |
182 | |
183 | Binary "/" divides two numbers. |
184 | |
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185 | Binary "%" computes the modulus of two numbers. Given integer |
186 | operands C<$a> and C<$b>: If C<$b> is positive, then C<$a % $b> is |
187 | C<$a> minus the largest multiple of C<$b> that is not greater than |
188 | C<$a>. If C<$b> is negative, then C<$a % $b> is C<$a> minus the |
189 | smallest multiple of C<$b> that is not less than C<$a> (i.e. the |
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190 | result will be less than or equal to zero). If C<use integer> is |
191 | in effect, the native hardware will be used instead of this rule, |
192 | which may be construed a bug that will be fixed at some point. |
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193 | |
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194 | Note than when C<use integer> is in scope, "%" give you direct access |
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195 | to the modulus operator as implemented by your C compiler. This |
196 | operator is not as well defined for negative operands, but it will |
197 | execute faster. |
198 | |
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199 | Binary "x" is the repetition operator. In scalar context, it |
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200 | returns a string consisting of the left operand repeated the number of |
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201 | times specified by the right operand. In list context, if the left |
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202 | operand is a list in parentheses, it repeats the list. |
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203 | |
204 | print '-' x 80; # print row of dashes |
205 | |
206 | print "\t" x ($tab/8), ' ' x ($tab%8); # tab over |
207 | |
208 | @ones = (1) x 80; # a list of 80 1's |
209 | @ones = (5) x @ones; # set all elements to 5 |
210 | |
211 | |
212 | =head2 Additive Operators |
213 | |
214 | Binary "+" returns the sum of two numbers. |
215 | |
216 | Binary "-" returns the difference of two numbers. |
217 | |
218 | Binary "." concatenates two strings. |
219 | |
220 | =head2 Shift Operators |
221 | |
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222 | Binary "<<" returns the value of its left argument shifted left by the |
223 | number of bits specified by the right argument. Arguments should be |
224 | integers. (See also L<Integer Arithmetic>.) |
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225 | |
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226 | Binary ">>" returns the value of its left argument shifted right by |
227 | the number of bits specified by the right argument. Arguments should |
228 | be integers. (See also L<Integer Arithmetic>.) |
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229 | |
230 | =head2 Named Unary Operators |
231 | |
232 | The various named unary operators are treated as functions with one |
233 | argument, with optional parentheses. These include the filetest |
234 | operators, like C<-f>, C<-M>, etc. See L<perlfunc>. |
235 | |
236 | If any list operator (print(), etc.) or any unary operator (chdir(), etc.) |
237 | is followed by a left parenthesis as the next token, the operator and |
238 | arguments within parentheses are taken to be of highest precedence, |
239 | just like a normal function call. Examples: |
240 | |
241 | chdir $foo || die; # (chdir $foo) || die |
242 | chdir($foo) || die; # (chdir $foo) || die |
243 | chdir ($foo) || die; # (chdir $foo) || die |
244 | chdir +($foo) || die; # (chdir $foo) || die |
245 | |
246 | but, because * is higher precedence than ||: |
247 | |
248 | chdir $foo * 20; # chdir ($foo * 20) |
249 | chdir($foo) * 20; # (chdir $foo) * 20 |
250 | chdir ($foo) * 20; # (chdir $foo) * 20 |
251 | chdir +($foo) * 20; # chdir ($foo * 20) |
252 | |
253 | rand 10 * 20; # rand (10 * 20) |
254 | rand(10) * 20; # (rand 10) * 20 |
255 | rand (10) * 20; # (rand 10) * 20 |
256 | rand +(10) * 20; # rand (10 * 20) |
257 | |
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258 | See also L<"Terms and List Operators (Leftward)">. |
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259 | |
260 | =head2 Relational Operators |
261 | |
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262 | Binary "E<lt>" returns true if the left argument is numerically less than |
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263 | the right argument. |
264 | |
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265 | Binary "E<gt>" returns true if the left argument is numerically greater |
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266 | than the right argument. |
267 | |
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268 | Binary "E<lt>=" returns true if the left argument is numerically less than |
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269 | or equal to the right argument. |
270 | |
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271 | Binary "E<gt>=" returns true if the left argument is numerically greater |
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272 | than or equal to the right argument. |
273 | |
274 | Binary "lt" returns true if the left argument is stringwise less than |
275 | the right argument. |
276 | |
277 | Binary "gt" returns true if the left argument is stringwise greater |
278 | than the right argument. |
279 | |
280 | Binary "le" returns true if the left argument is stringwise less than |
281 | or equal to the right argument. |
282 | |
283 | Binary "ge" returns true if the left argument is stringwise greater |
284 | than or equal to the right argument. |
285 | |
286 | =head2 Equality Operators |
287 | |
288 | Binary "==" returns true if the left argument is numerically equal to |
289 | the right argument. |
290 | |
291 | Binary "!=" returns true if the left argument is numerically not equal |
292 | to the right argument. |
293 | |
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294 | Binary "E<lt>=E<gt>" returns -1, 0, or 1 depending on whether the left |
295 | argument is numerically less than, equal to, or greater than the right |
296 | argument. |
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297 | |
298 | Binary "eq" returns true if the left argument is stringwise equal to |
299 | the right argument. |
300 | |
301 | Binary "ne" returns true if the left argument is stringwise not equal |
302 | to the right argument. |
303 | |
304 | Binary "cmp" returns -1, 0, or 1 depending on whether the left argument is stringwise |
305 | less than, equal to, or greater than the right argument. |
306 | |
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307 | "lt", "le", "ge", "gt" and "cmp" use the collation (sort) order specified |
308 | by the current locale if C<use locale> is in effect. See L<perllocale>. |
309 | |
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310 | =head2 Bitwise And |
311 | |
312 | Binary "&" returns its operators ANDed together bit by bit. |
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313 | (See also L<Integer Arithmetic> and L<Bitwise String Operators>.) |
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314 | |
315 | =head2 Bitwise Or and Exclusive Or |
316 | |
317 | Binary "|" returns its operators ORed together bit by bit. |
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318 | (See also L<Integer Arithmetic> and L<Bitwise String Operators>.) |
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319 | |
320 | Binary "^" returns its operators XORed together bit by bit. |
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321 | (See also L<Integer Arithmetic> and L<Bitwise String Operators>.) |
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322 | |
323 | =head2 C-style Logical And |
324 | |
325 | Binary "&&" performs a short-circuit logical AND operation. That is, |
326 | if the left operand is false, the right operand is not even evaluated. |
327 | Scalar or list context propagates down to the right operand if it |
328 | is evaluated. |
329 | |
330 | =head2 C-style Logical Or |
331 | |
332 | Binary "||" performs a short-circuit logical OR operation. That is, |
333 | if the left operand is true, the right operand is not even evaluated. |
334 | Scalar or list context propagates down to the right operand if it |
335 | is evaluated. |
336 | |
337 | The C<||> and C<&&> operators differ from C's in that, rather than returning |
338 | 0 or 1, they return the last value evaluated. Thus, a reasonably portable |
339 | way to find out the home directory (assuming it's not "0") might be: |
340 | |
341 | $home = $ENV{'HOME'} || $ENV{'LOGDIR'} || |
342 | (getpwuid($<))[7] || die "You're homeless!\n"; |
343 | |
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344 | In particular, this means that you shouldn't use this |
345 | for selecting between two aggregates for assignment: |
346 | |
347 | @a = @b || @c; # this is wrong |
348 | @a = scalar(@b) || @c; # really meant this |
349 | @a = @b ? @b : @c; # this works fine, though |
350 | |
351 | As more readable alternatives to C<&&> and C<||> when used for |
352 | control flow, Perl provides C<and> and C<or> operators (see below). |
353 | The short-circuit behavior is identical. The precedence of "and" and |
354 | "or" is much lower, however, so that you can safely use them after a |
355 | list operator without the need for parentheses: |
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356 | |
357 | unlink "alpha", "beta", "gamma" |
358 | or gripe(), next LINE; |
359 | |
360 | With the C-style operators that would have been written like this: |
361 | |
362 | unlink("alpha", "beta", "gamma") |
363 | || (gripe(), next LINE); |
364 | |
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365 | Use "or" for assignment is unlikely to do what you want; see below. |
366 | |
367 | =head2 Range Operators |
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368 | |
369 | Binary ".." is the range operator, which is really two different |
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370 | operators depending on the context. In list context, it returns an |
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371 | array of values counting (by ones) from the left value to the right |
372 | value. This is useful for writing C<for (1..10)> loops and for doing |
373 | slice operations on arrays. Be aware that under the current implementation, |
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374 | a temporary array is created, so you'll burn a lot of memory if you |
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375 | write something like this: |
376 | |
377 | for (1 .. 1_000_000) { |
378 | # code |
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379 | } |
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380 | |
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381 | In scalar context, ".." returns a boolean value. The operator is |
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382 | bistable, like a flip-flop, and emulates the line-range (comma) operator |
383 | of B<sed>, B<awk>, and various editors. Each ".." operator maintains its |
384 | own boolean state. It is false as long as its left operand is false. |
385 | Once the left operand is true, the range operator stays true until the |
386 | right operand is true, I<AFTER> which the range operator becomes false |
387 | again. (It doesn't become false till the next time the range operator is |
388 | evaluated. It can test the right operand and become false on the same |
389 | evaluation it became true (as in B<awk>), but it still returns true once. |
390 | If you don't want it to test the right operand till the next evaluation |
391 | (as in B<sed>), use three dots ("...") instead of two.) The right |
392 | operand is not evaluated while the operator is in the "false" state, and |
393 | the left operand is not evaluated while the operator is in the "true" |
394 | state. The precedence is a little lower than || and &&. The value |
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395 | returned is either the empty string for false, or a sequence number |
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396 | (beginning with 1) for true. The sequence number is reset for each range |
397 | encountered. The final sequence number in a range has the string "E0" |
398 | appended to it, which doesn't affect its numeric value, but gives you |
399 | something to search for if you want to exclude the endpoint. You can |
400 | exclude the beginning point by waiting for the sequence number to be |
401 | greater than 1. If either operand of scalar ".." is a numeric literal, |
402 | that operand is implicitly compared to the C<$.> variable, the current |
403 | line number. Examples: |
404 | |
405 | As a scalar operator: |
406 | |
407 | if (101 .. 200) { print; } # print 2nd hundred lines |
408 | next line if (1 .. /^$/); # skip header lines |
409 | s/^/> / if (/^$/ .. eof()); # quote body |
410 | |
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411 | # parse mail messages |
412 | while (<>) { |
413 | $in_header = 1 .. /^$/; |
414 | $in_body = /^$/ .. eof(); |
415 | # do something based on those |
416 | } continue { |
417 | close ARGV if eof; # reset $. each file |
418 | } |
419 | |
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420 | As a list operator: |
421 | |
422 | for (101 .. 200) { print; } # print $_ 100 times |
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423 | @foo = @foo[0 .. $#foo]; # an expensive no-op |
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424 | @foo = @foo[$#foo-4 .. $#foo]; # slice last 5 items |
425 | |
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426 | The range operator (in list context) makes use of the magical |
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427 | auto-increment algorithm if the operands are strings. You |
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428 | can say |
429 | |
430 | @alphabet = ('A' .. 'Z'); |
431 | |
432 | to get all the letters of the alphabet, or |
433 | |
434 | $hexdigit = (0 .. 9, 'a' .. 'f')[$num & 15]; |
435 | |
436 | to get a hexadecimal digit, or |
437 | |
438 | @z2 = ('01' .. '31'); print $z2[$mday]; |
439 | |
440 | to get dates with leading zeros. If the final value specified is not |
441 | in the sequence that the magical increment would produce, the sequence |
442 | goes until the next value would be longer than the final value |
443 | specified. |
444 | |
445 | =head2 Conditional Operator |
446 | |
447 | Ternary "?:" is the conditional operator, just as in C. It works much |
448 | like an if-then-else. If the argument before the ? is true, the |
449 | argument before the : is returned, otherwise the argument after the : |
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450 | is returned. For example: |
451 | |
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452 | printf "I have %d dog%s.\n", $n, |
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453 | ($n == 1) ? '' : "s"; |
454 | |
455 | Scalar or list context propagates downward into the 2nd |
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456 | or 3rd argument, whichever is selected. |
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457 | |
458 | $a = $ok ? $b : $c; # get a scalar |
459 | @a = $ok ? @b : @c; # get an array |
460 | $a = $ok ? @b : @c; # oops, that's just a count! |
461 | |
462 | The operator may be assigned to if both the 2nd and 3rd arguments are |
463 | legal lvalues (meaning that you can assign to them): |
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464 | |
465 | ($a_or_b ? $a : $b) = $c; |
466 | |
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467 | This is not necessarily guaranteed to contribute to the readability of your program. |
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468 | |
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469 | Because this operator produces an assignable result, using assignments |
470 | without parentheses will get you in trouble. For example, this: |
471 | |
472 | $a % 2 ? $a += 10 : $a += 2 |
473 | |
474 | Really means this: |
475 | |
476 | (($a % 2) ? ($a += 10) : $a) += 2 |
477 | |
478 | Rather than this: |
479 | |
480 | ($a % 2) ? ($a += 10) : ($a += 2) |
481 | |
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482 | =head2 Assignment Operators |
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483 | |
484 | "=" is the ordinary assignment operator. |
485 | |
486 | Assignment operators work as in C. That is, |
487 | |
488 | $a += 2; |
489 | |
490 | is equivalent to |
491 | |
492 | $a = $a + 2; |
493 | |
494 | although without duplicating any side effects that dereferencing the lvalue |
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495 | might trigger, such as from tie(). Other assignment operators work similarly. |
496 | The following are recognized: |
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497 | |
498 | **= += *= &= <<= &&= |
499 | -= /= |= >>= ||= |
500 | .= %= ^= |
501 | x= |
502 | |
503 | Note that while these are grouped by family, they all have the precedence |
504 | of assignment. |
505 | |
506 | Unlike in C, the assignment operator produces a valid lvalue. Modifying |
507 | an assignment is equivalent to doing the assignment and then modifying |
508 | the variable that was assigned to. This is useful for modifying |
509 | a copy of something, like this: |
510 | |
511 | ($tmp = $global) =~ tr [A-Z] [a-z]; |
512 | |
513 | Likewise, |
514 | |
515 | ($a += 2) *= 3; |
516 | |
517 | is equivalent to |
518 | |
519 | $a += 2; |
520 | $a *= 3; |
521 | |
748a9306 |
522 | =head2 Comma Operator |
a0d0e21e |
523 | |
5a964f20 |
524 | Binary "," is the comma operator. In scalar context it evaluates |
a0d0e21e |
525 | its left argument, throws that value away, then evaluates its right |
526 | argument and returns that value. This is just like C's comma operator. |
527 | |
5a964f20 |
528 | In list context, it's just the list argument separator, and inserts |
a0d0e21e |
529 | both its arguments into the list. |
530 | |
6ee5d4e7 |
531 | The =E<gt> digraph is mostly just a synonym for the comma operator. It's useful for |
cb1a09d0 |
532 | documenting arguments that come in pairs. As of release 5.001, it also forces |
4633a7c4 |
533 | any word to the left of it to be interpreted as a string. |
748a9306 |
534 | |
a0d0e21e |
535 | =head2 List Operators (Rightward) |
536 | |
537 | On the right side of a list operator, it has very low precedence, |
538 | such that it controls all comma-separated expressions found there. |
539 | The only operators with lower precedence are the logical operators |
540 | "and", "or", and "not", which may be used to evaluate calls to list |
541 | operators without the need for extra parentheses: |
542 | |
543 | open HANDLE, "filename" |
544 | or die "Can't open: $!\n"; |
545 | |
5ba421f6 |
546 | See also discussion of list operators in L<Terms and List Operators (Leftward)>. |
a0d0e21e |
547 | |
548 | =head2 Logical Not |
549 | |
550 | Unary "not" returns the logical negation of the expression to its right. |
551 | It's the equivalent of "!" except for the very low precedence. |
552 | |
553 | =head2 Logical And |
554 | |
555 | Binary "and" returns the logical conjunction of the two surrounding |
556 | expressions. It's equivalent to && except for the very low |
5f05dabc |
557 | precedence. This means that it short-circuits: i.e., the right |
a0d0e21e |
558 | expression is evaluated only if the left expression is true. |
559 | |
560 | =head2 Logical or and Exclusive Or |
561 | |
562 | Binary "or" returns the logical disjunction of the two surrounding |
5a964f20 |
563 | expressions. It's equivalent to || except for the very low precedence. |
564 | This makes it useful for control flow |
565 | |
566 | print FH $data or die "Can't write to FH: $!"; |
567 | |
568 | This means that it short-circuits: i.e., the right expression is evaluated |
569 | only if the left expression is false. Due to its precedence, you should |
570 | probably avoid using this for assignment, only for control flow. |
571 | |
572 | $a = $b or $c; # bug: this is wrong |
573 | ($a = $b) or $c; # really means this |
574 | $a = $b || $c; # better written this way |
575 | |
576 | However, when it's a list context assignment and you're trying to use |
577 | "||" for control flow, you probably need "or" so that the assignment |
578 | takes higher precedence. |
579 | |
580 | @info = stat($file) || die; # oops, scalar sense of stat! |
581 | @info = stat($file) or die; # better, now @info gets its due |
582 | |
583 | Then again, you could always use parentheses. |
a0d0e21e |
584 | |
585 | Binary "xor" returns the exclusive-OR of the two surrounding expressions. |
586 | It cannot short circuit, of course. |
587 | |
588 | =head2 C Operators Missing From Perl |
589 | |
590 | Here is what C has that Perl doesn't: |
591 | |
592 | =over 8 |
593 | |
594 | =item unary & |
595 | |
596 | Address-of operator. (But see the "\" operator for taking a reference.) |
597 | |
598 | =item unary * |
599 | |
54310121 |
600 | Dereference-address operator. (Perl's prefix dereferencing |
a0d0e21e |
601 | operators are typed: $, @, %, and &.) |
602 | |
603 | =item (TYPE) |
604 | |
54310121 |
605 | Type casting operator. |
a0d0e21e |
606 | |
607 | =back |
608 | |
5f05dabc |
609 | =head2 Quote and Quote-like Operators |
a0d0e21e |
610 | |
611 | While we usually think of quotes as literal values, in Perl they |
612 | function as operators, providing various kinds of interpolating and |
613 | pattern matching capabilities. Perl provides customary quote characters |
614 | for these behaviors, but also provides a way for you to choose your |
615 | quote character for any of them. In the following table, a C<{}> represents |
616 | any pair of delimiters you choose. Non-bracketing delimiters use |
54310121 |
617 | the same character fore and aft, but the 4 sorts of brackets |
a0d0e21e |
618 | (round, angle, square, curly) will all nest. |
619 | |
2c268ad5 |
620 | Customary Generic Meaning Interpolates |
621 | '' q{} Literal no |
622 | "" qq{} Literal yes |
623 | `` qx{} Command yes |
624 | qw{} Word list no |
625 | // m{} Pattern match yes |
626 | s{}{} Substitution yes |
627 | tr{}{} Transliteration no (but see below) |
a0d0e21e |
628 | |
fb73857a |
629 | Note that there can be whitespace between the operator and the quoting |
630 | characters, except when C<#> is being used as the quoting character. |
a3cb178b |
631 | C<q#foo#> is parsed as being the string C<foo>, while C<q #foo#> is the |
fb73857a |
632 | operator C<q> followed by a comment. Its argument will be taken from the |
633 | next line. This allows you to write: |
634 | |
635 | s {foo} # Replace foo |
636 | {bar} # with bar. |
637 | |
2c268ad5 |
638 | For constructs that do interpolation, variables beginning with "C<$>" |
639 | or "C<@>" are interpolated, as are the following sequences. Within |
640 | a transliteration, the first ten of these sequences may be used. |
a0d0e21e |
641 | |
6ee5d4e7 |
642 | \t tab (HT, TAB) |
5a964f20 |
643 | \n newline (NL) |
6ee5d4e7 |
644 | \r return (CR) |
645 | \f form feed (FF) |
646 | \b backspace (BS) |
647 | \a alarm (bell) (BEL) |
648 | \e escape (ESC) |
a0d0e21e |
649 | \033 octal char |
650 | \x1b hex char |
651 | \c[ control char |
2c268ad5 |
652 | |
a0d0e21e |
653 | \l lowercase next char |
654 | \u uppercase next char |
655 | \L lowercase till \E |
656 | \U uppercase till \E |
657 | \E end case modification |
1d2dff63 |
658 | \Q quote non-word characters till \E |
a0d0e21e |
659 | |
a034a98d |
660 | If C<use locale> is in effect, the case map used by C<\l>, C<\L>, C<\u> |
7b8d334a |
661 | and C<\U> is taken from the current locale. See L<perllocale>. |
a034a98d |
662 | |
5a964f20 |
663 | All systems use the virtual C<"\n"> to represent a line terminator, |
664 | called a "newline". There is no such thing as an unvarying, physical |
665 | newline character. It is an illusion that the operating system, |
666 | device drivers, C libraries, and Perl all conspire to preserve. Not all |
667 | systems read C<"\r"> as ASCII CR and C<"\n"> as ASCII LF. For example, |
668 | on a Mac, these are reversed, and on systems without line terminator, |
669 | printing C<"\n"> may emit no actual data. In general, use C<"\n"> when |
670 | you mean a "newline" for your system, but use the literal ASCII when you |
671 | need an exact character. For example, most networking protocols expect |
672 | and prefer a CR+LF (C<"\012\015"> or C<"\cJ\cM">) for line terminators, |
673 | and although they often accept just C<"\012">, they seldom tolerate just |
674 | C<"\015">. If you get in the habit of using C<"\n"> for networking, |
675 | you may be burned some day. |
676 | |
1d2dff63 |
677 | You cannot include a literal C<$> or C<@> within a C<\Q> sequence. |
678 | An unescaped C<$> or C<@> interpolates the corresponding variable, |
679 | while escaping will cause the literal string C<\$> to be inserted. |
680 | You'll need to write something like C<m/\Quser\E\@\Qhost/>. |
681 | |
a0d0e21e |
682 | Patterns are subject to an additional level of interpretation as a |
683 | regular expression. This is done as a second pass, after variables are |
684 | interpolated, so that regular expressions may be incorporated into the |
685 | pattern from the variables. If this is not what you want, use C<\Q> to |
686 | interpolate a variable literally. |
687 | |
688 | Apart from the above, there are no multiple levels of interpolation. In |
5f05dabc |
689 | particular, contrary to the expectations of shell programmers, back-quotes |
a0d0e21e |
690 | do I<NOT> interpolate within double quotes, nor do single quotes impede |
691 | evaluation of variables when used within double quotes. |
692 | |
5f05dabc |
693 | =head2 Regexp Quote-Like Operators |
cb1a09d0 |
694 | |
5f05dabc |
695 | Here are the quote-like operators that apply to pattern |
cb1a09d0 |
696 | matching and related activities. |
697 | |
a0d0e21e |
698 | =over 8 |
699 | |
700 | =item ?PATTERN? |
701 | |
702 | This is just like the C</pattern/> search, except that it matches only |
703 | once between calls to the reset() operator. This is a useful |
5f05dabc |
704 | optimization when you want to see only the first occurrence of |
a0d0e21e |
705 | something in each file of a set of files, for instance. Only C<??> |
706 | patterns local to the current package are reset. |
707 | |
5a964f20 |
708 | while (<>) { |
709 | if (?^$?) { |
710 | # blank line between header and body |
711 | } |
712 | } continue { |
713 | reset if eof; # clear ?? status for next file |
714 | } |
715 | |
a0d0e21e |
716 | This usage is vaguely deprecated, and may be removed in some future |
717 | version of Perl. |
718 | |
fb73857a |
719 | =item m/PATTERN/cgimosx |
a0d0e21e |
720 | |
fb73857a |
721 | =item /PATTERN/cgimosx |
a0d0e21e |
722 | |
5a964f20 |
723 | Searches a string for a pattern match, and in scalar context returns |
a0d0e21e |
724 | true (1) or false (''). If no string is specified via the C<=~> or |
725 | C<!~> operator, the $_ string is searched. (The string specified with |
726 | C<=~> need not be an lvalue--it may be the result of an expression |
727 | evaluation, but remember the C<=~> binds rather tightly.) See also |
728 | L<perlre>. |
5a964f20 |
729 | See L<perllocale> for discussion of additional considerations that apply |
a034a98d |
730 | when C<use locale> is in effect. |
a0d0e21e |
731 | |
732 | Options are: |
733 | |
fb73857a |
734 | c Do not reset search position on a failed match when /g is in effect. |
5f05dabc |
735 | g Match globally, i.e., find all occurrences. |
a0d0e21e |
736 | i Do case-insensitive pattern matching. |
737 | m Treat string as multiple lines. |
5f05dabc |
738 | o Compile pattern only once. |
a0d0e21e |
739 | s Treat string as single line. |
48c036b1 |
740 | t Taint $1 etc. if target string is tainted. |
a0d0e21e |
741 | x Use extended regular expressions. |
742 | |
743 | If "/" is the delimiter then the initial C<m> is optional. With the C<m> |
744 | you can use any pair of non-alphanumeric, non-whitespace characters as |
745 | delimiters. This is particularly useful for matching Unix path names |
7bac28a0 |
746 | that contain "/", to avoid LTS (leaning toothpick syndrome). If "?" is |
747 | the delimiter, then the match-only-once rule of C<?PATTERN?> applies. |
a0d0e21e |
748 | |
749 | PATTERN may contain variables, which will be interpolated (and the |
750 | pattern recompiled) every time the pattern search is evaluated. (Note |
751 | that C<$)> and C<$|> might not be interpolated because they look like |
752 | end-of-string tests.) If you want such a pattern to be compiled only |
753 | once, add a C</o> after the trailing delimiter. This avoids expensive |
754 | run-time recompilations, and is useful when the value you are |
755 | interpolating won't change over the life of the script. However, mentioning |
756 | C</o> constitutes a promise that you won't change the variables in the pattern. |
757 | If you change them, Perl won't even notice. |
758 | |
5a964f20 |
759 | If the PATTERN evaluates to the empty string, the last |
760 | I<successfully> matched regular expression is used instead. |
a0d0e21e |
761 | |
762 | If used in a context that requires a list value, a pattern match returns a |
763 | list consisting of the subexpressions matched by the parentheses in the |
5f05dabc |
764 | pattern, i.e., (C<$1>, $2, $3...). (Note that here $1 etc. are also set, and |
1d2dff63 |
765 | that this differs from Perl 4's behavior.) If there are no parentheses, |
766 | the return value is the list C<(1)> for success or C<('')> upon failure. |
767 | With parentheses, C<()> is returned upon failure. |
a0d0e21e |
768 | |
769 | Examples: |
770 | |
771 | open(TTY, '/dev/tty'); |
772 | <TTY> =~ /^y/i && foo(); # do foo if desired |
773 | |
774 | if (/Version: *([0-9.]*)/) { $version = $1; } |
775 | |
776 | next if m#^/usr/spool/uucp#; |
777 | |
778 | # poor man's grep |
779 | $arg = shift; |
780 | while (<>) { |
781 | print if /$arg/o; # compile only once |
782 | } |
783 | |
784 | if (($F1, $F2, $Etc) = ($foo =~ /^(\S+)\s+(\S+)\s*(.*)/)) |
785 | |
786 | This last example splits $foo into the first two words and the |
5f05dabc |
787 | remainder of the line, and assigns those three fields to $F1, $F2, and |
788 | $Etc. The conditional is true if any variables were assigned, i.e., if |
a0d0e21e |
789 | the pattern matched. |
790 | |
791 | The C</g> modifier specifies global pattern matching--that is, matching |
792 | as many times as possible within the string. How it behaves depends on |
5a964f20 |
793 | the context. In list context, it returns a list of all the |
a0d0e21e |
794 | substrings matched by all the parentheses in the regular expression. |
795 | If there are no parentheses, it returns a list of all the matched |
796 | strings, as if there were parentheses around the whole pattern. |
797 | |
5a964f20 |
798 | In scalar context, C<m//g> iterates through the string, returning TRUE |
c90c0ff4 |
799 | each time it matches, and FALSE when it eventually runs out of matches. |
800 | (In other words, it remembers where it left off last time and restarts |
801 | the search at that point. You can actually find the current match |
802 | position of a string or set it using the pos() function; see |
803 | L<perlfunc/pos>.) A failed match normally resets the search position to |
90248788 |
804 | the beginning of the string, but you can avoid that by adding the C</c> |
c90c0ff4 |
805 | modifier (e.g. C<m//gc>). Modifying the target string also resets the |
806 | search position. |
807 | |
808 | You can intermix C<m//g> matches with C<m/\G.../g>, where C<\G> is a |
809 | zero-width assertion that matches the exact position where the previous |
810 | C<m//g>, if any, left off. The C<\G> assertion is not supported without |
811 | the C</g> modifier; currently, without C</g>, C<\G> behaves just like |
812 | C<\A>, but that's accidental and may change in the future. |
813 | |
814 | Examples: |
a0d0e21e |
815 | |
816 | # list context |
817 | ($one,$five,$fifteen) = (`uptime` =~ /(\d+\.\d+)/g); |
818 | |
819 | # scalar context |
5f05dabc |
820 | $/ = ""; $* = 1; # $* deprecated in modern perls |
54310121 |
821 | while (defined($paragraph = <>)) { |
a0d0e21e |
822 | while ($paragraph =~ /[a-z]['")]*[.!?]+['")]*\s/g) { |
823 | $sentences++; |
824 | } |
825 | } |
826 | print "$sentences\n"; |
827 | |
c90c0ff4 |
828 | # using m//gc with \G |
137443ea |
829 | $_ = "ppooqppqq"; |
44a8e56a |
830 | while ($i++ < 2) { |
831 | print "1: '"; |
c90c0ff4 |
832 | print $1 while /(o)/gc; print "', pos=", pos, "\n"; |
44a8e56a |
833 | print "2: '"; |
c90c0ff4 |
834 | print $1 if /\G(q)/gc; print "', pos=", pos, "\n"; |
44a8e56a |
835 | print "3: '"; |
c90c0ff4 |
836 | print $1 while /(p)/gc; print "', pos=", pos, "\n"; |
44a8e56a |
837 | } |
838 | |
839 | The last example should print: |
840 | |
841 | 1: 'oo', pos=4 |
137443ea |
842 | 2: 'q', pos=5 |
44a8e56a |
843 | 3: 'pp', pos=7 |
844 | 1: '', pos=7 |
137443ea |
845 | 2: 'q', pos=8 |
846 | 3: '', pos=8 |
44a8e56a |
847 | |
c90c0ff4 |
848 | A useful idiom for C<lex>-like scanners is C</\G.../gc>. You can |
e7ea3e70 |
849 | combine several regexps like this to process a string part-by-part, |
c90c0ff4 |
850 | doing different actions depending on which regexp matched. Each |
851 | regexp tries to match where the previous one leaves off. |
e7ea3e70 |
852 | |
3fe9a6f1 |
853 | $_ = <<'EOL'; |
e7ea3e70 |
854 | $url = new URI::URL "http://www/"; die if $url eq "xXx"; |
3fe9a6f1 |
855 | EOL |
856 | LOOP: |
e7ea3e70 |
857 | { |
c90c0ff4 |
858 | print(" digits"), redo LOOP if /\G\d+\b[,.;]?\s*/gc; |
859 | print(" lowercase"), redo LOOP if /\G[a-z]+\b[,.;]?\s*/gc; |
860 | print(" UPPERCASE"), redo LOOP if /\G[A-Z]+\b[,.;]?\s*/gc; |
861 | print(" Capitalized"), redo LOOP if /\G[A-Z][a-z]+\b[,.;]?\s*/gc; |
862 | print(" MiXeD"), redo LOOP if /\G[A-Za-z]+\b[,.;]?\s*/gc; |
863 | print(" alphanumeric"), redo LOOP if /\G[A-Za-z0-9]+\b[,.;]?\s*/gc; |
864 | print(" line-noise"), redo LOOP if /\G[^A-Za-z0-9]+/gc; |
e7ea3e70 |
865 | print ". That's all!\n"; |
866 | } |
867 | |
868 | Here is the output (split into several lines): |
869 | |
870 | line-noise lowercase line-noise lowercase UPPERCASE line-noise |
871 | UPPERCASE line-noise lowercase line-noise lowercase line-noise |
872 | lowercase lowercase line-noise lowercase lowercase line-noise |
873 | MiXeD line-noise. That's all! |
44a8e56a |
874 | |
a0d0e21e |
875 | =item q/STRING/ |
876 | |
877 | =item C<'STRING'> |
878 | |
68dc0745 |
879 | A single-quoted, literal string. A backslash represents a backslash |
880 | unless followed by the delimiter or another backslash, in which case |
881 | the delimiter or backslash is interpolated. |
a0d0e21e |
882 | |
883 | $foo = q!I said, "You said, 'She said it.'"!; |
884 | $bar = q('This is it.'); |
68dc0745 |
885 | $baz = '\n'; # a two-character string |
a0d0e21e |
886 | |
887 | =item qq/STRING/ |
888 | |
889 | =item "STRING" |
890 | |
891 | A double-quoted, interpolated string. |
892 | |
893 | $_ .= qq |
894 | (*** The previous line contains the naughty word "$1".\n) |
895 | if /(tcl|rexx|python)/; # :-) |
68dc0745 |
896 | $baz = "\n"; # a one-character string |
a0d0e21e |
897 | |
898 | =item qx/STRING/ |
899 | |
900 | =item `STRING` |
901 | |
5a964f20 |
902 | A string which is (possibly) interpolated and then executed as a system |
903 | command with C</bin/sh> or its equivalent. Shell wildcards, pipes, |
904 | and redirections will be honored. The collected standard output of the |
905 | command is returned; standard error is unaffected. In scalar context, |
906 | it comes back as a single (potentially multi-line) string. In list |
907 | context, returns a list of lines (however you've defined lines with $/ |
908 | or $INPUT_RECORD_SEPARATOR). |
909 | |
910 | Because backticks do not affect standard error, use shell file descriptor |
911 | syntax (assuming the shell supports this) if you care to address this. |
912 | To capture a command's STDERR and STDOUT together: |
a0d0e21e |
913 | |
5a964f20 |
914 | $output = `cmd 2>&1`; |
915 | |
916 | To capture a command's STDOUT but discard its STDERR: |
917 | |
918 | $output = `cmd 2>/dev/null`; |
919 | |
920 | To capture a command's STDERR but discard its STDOUT (ordering is |
921 | important here): |
922 | |
923 | $output = `cmd 2>&1 1>/dev/null`; |
924 | |
925 | To exchange a command's STDOUT and STDERR in order to capture the STDERR |
926 | but leave its STDOUT to come out the old STDERR: |
927 | |
928 | $output = `cmd 3>&1 1>&2 2>&3 3>&-`; |
929 | |
930 | To read both a command's STDOUT and its STDERR separately, it's easiest |
931 | and safest to redirect them separately to files, and then read from those |
932 | files when the program is done: |
933 | |
934 | system("program args 1>/tmp/program.stdout 2>/tmp/program.stderr"); |
935 | |
936 | Using single-quote as a delimiter protects the command from Perl's |
937 | double-quote interpolation, passing it on to the shell instead: |
938 | |
939 | $perl_info = qx(ps $$); # that's Perl's $$ |
940 | $shell_info = qx'ps $$'; # that's the new shell's $$ |
941 | |
942 | Note that how the string gets evaluated is entirely subject to the command |
943 | interpreter on your system. On most platforms, you will have to protect |
944 | shell metacharacters if you want them treated literally. This is in |
945 | practice difficult to do, as it's unclear how to escape which characters. |
946 | See L<perlsec> for a clean and safe example of a manual fork() and exec() |
947 | to emulate backticks safely. |
a0d0e21e |
948 | |
bb32b41a |
949 | On some platforms (notably DOS-like ones), the shell may not be |
950 | capable of dealing with multiline commands, so putting newlines in |
951 | the string may not get you what you want. You may be able to evaluate |
952 | multiple commands in a single line by separating them with the command |
953 | separator character, if your shell supports that (e.g. C<;> on many Unix |
954 | shells; C<&> on the Windows NT C<cmd> shell). |
955 | |
956 | Beware that some command shells may place restrictions on the length |
957 | of the command line. You must ensure your strings don't exceed this |
958 | limit after any necessary interpolations. See the platform-specific |
959 | release notes for more details about your particular environment. |
960 | |
5a964f20 |
961 | Using this operator can lead to programs that are difficult to port, |
962 | because the shell commands called vary between systems, and may in |
963 | fact not be present at all. As one example, the C<type> command under |
964 | the POSIX shell is very different from the C<type> command under DOS. |
965 | That doesn't mean you should go out of your way to avoid backticks |
966 | when they're the right way to get something done. Perl was made to be |
967 | a glue language, and one of the things it glues together is commands. |
968 | Just understand what you're getting yourself into. |
bb32b41a |
969 | |
dc848c6f |
970 | See L<"I/O Operators"> for more discussion. |
a0d0e21e |
971 | |
972 | =item qw/STRING/ |
973 | |
974 | Returns a list of the words extracted out of STRING, using embedded |
975 | whitespace as the word delimiters. It is exactly equivalent to |
976 | |
977 | split(' ', q/STRING/); |
978 | |
5a964f20 |
979 | This equivalency means that if used in scalar context, you'll get split's |
980 | (unfortunate) scalar context behavior, complete with mysterious warnings. |
981 | |
a0d0e21e |
982 | Some frequently seen examples: |
983 | |
984 | use POSIX qw( setlocale localeconv ) |
985 | @EXPORT = qw( foo bar baz ); |
986 | |
7bac28a0 |
987 | A common mistake is to try to separate the words with comma or to put |
5a964f20 |
988 | comments into a multi-line C<qw>-string. For this reason the C<-w> |
7bac28a0 |
989 | switch produce warnings if the STRING contains the "," or the "#" |
990 | character. |
991 | |
a0d0e21e |
992 | =item s/PATTERN/REPLACEMENT/egimosx |
993 | |
994 | Searches a string for a pattern, and if found, replaces that pattern |
995 | with the replacement text and returns the number of substitutions |
e37d713d |
996 | made. Otherwise it returns false (specifically, the empty string). |
a0d0e21e |
997 | |
998 | If no string is specified via the C<=~> or C<!~> operator, the C<$_> |
999 | variable is searched and modified. (The string specified with C<=~> must |
5a964f20 |
1000 | be scalar variable, an array element, a hash element, or an assignment |
5f05dabc |
1001 | to one of those, i.e., an lvalue.) |
a0d0e21e |
1002 | |
1003 | If the delimiter chosen is single quote, no variable interpolation is |
1004 | done on either the PATTERN or the REPLACEMENT. Otherwise, if the |
1005 | PATTERN contains a $ that looks like a variable rather than an |
1006 | end-of-string test, the variable will be interpolated into the pattern |
5f05dabc |
1007 | at run-time. If you want the pattern compiled only once the first time |
a0d0e21e |
1008 | the variable is interpolated, use the C</o> option. If the pattern |
5a964f20 |
1009 | evaluates to the empty string, the last successfully executed regular |
a0d0e21e |
1010 | expression is used instead. See L<perlre> for further explanation on these. |
5a964f20 |
1011 | See L<perllocale> for discussion of additional considerations that apply |
a034a98d |
1012 | when C<use locale> is in effect. |
a0d0e21e |
1013 | |
1014 | Options are: |
1015 | |
1016 | e Evaluate the right side as an expression. |
5f05dabc |
1017 | g Replace globally, i.e., all occurrences. |
a0d0e21e |
1018 | i Do case-insensitive pattern matching. |
1019 | m Treat string as multiple lines. |
5f05dabc |
1020 | o Compile pattern only once. |
a0d0e21e |
1021 | s Treat string as single line. |
1022 | x Use extended regular expressions. |
1023 | |
1024 | Any non-alphanumeric, non-whitespace delimiter may replace the |
1025 | slashes. If single quotes are used, no interpretation is done on the |
e37d713d |
1026 | replacement string (the C</e> modifier overrides this, however). Unlike |
54310121 |
1027 | Perl 4, Perl 5 treats backticks as normal delimiters; the replacement |
e37d713d |
1028 | text is not evaluated as a command. If the |
a0d0e21e |
1029 | PATTERN is delimited by bracketing quotes, the REPLACEMENT has its own |
5f05dabc |
1030 | pair of quotes, which may or may not be bracketing quotes, e.g., |
a0d0e21e |
1031 | C<s(foo)(bar)> or C<sE<lt>fooE<gt>/bar/>. A C</e> will cause the |
7b8d334a |
1032 | replacement portion to be interpreted as a full-fledged Perl expression |
a0d0e21e |
1033 | and eval()ed right then and there. It is, however, syntax checked at |
1034 | compile-time. |
1035 | |
1036 | Examples: |
1037 | |
1038 | s/\bgreen\b/mauve/g; # don't change wintergreen |
1039 | |
1040 | $path =~ s|/usr/bin|/usr/local/bin|; |
1041 | |
1042 | s/Login: $foo/Login: $bar/; # run-time pattern |
1043 | |
5a964f20 |
1044 | ($foo = $bar) =~ s/this/that/; # copy first, then change |
a0d0e21e |
1045 | |
5a964f20 |
1046 | $count = ($paragraph =~ s/Mister\b/Mr./g); # get change-count |
a0d0e21e |
1047 | |
1048 | $_ = 'abc123xyz'; |
1049 | s/\d+/$&*2/e; # yields 'abc246xyz' |
1050 | s/\d+/sprintf("%5d",$&)/e; # yields 'abc 246xyz' |
1051 | s/\w/$& x 2/eg; # yields 'aabbcc 224466xxyyzz' |
1052 | |
1053 | s/%(.)/$percent{$1}/g; # change percent escapes; no /e |
1054 | s/%(.)/$percent{$1} || $&/ge; # expr now, so /e |
1055 | s/^=(\w+)/&pod($1)/ge; # use function call |
1056 | |
5a964f20 |
1057 | # expand variables in $_, but dynamics only, using |
1058 | # symbolic dereferencing |
1059 | s/\$(\w+)/${$1}/g; |
1060 | |
a0d0e21e |
1061 | # /e's can even nest; this will expand |
5a964f20 |
1062 | # any embedded scalar variable (including lexicals) in $_ |
a0d0e21e |
1063 | s/(\$\w+)/$1/eeg; |
1064 | |
5a964f20 |
1065 | # Delete (most) C comments. |
a0d0e21e |
1066 | $program =~ s { |
4633a7c4 |
1067 | /\* # Match the opening delimiter. |
1068 | .*? # Match a minimal number of characters. |
1069 | \*/ # Match the closing delimiter. |
a0d0e21e |
1070 | } []gsx; |
1071 | |
5a964f20 |
1072 | s/^\s*(.*?)\s*$/$1/; # trim white space in $_, expensively |
1073 | |
1074 | for ($variable) { # trim white space in $variable, cheap |
1075 | s/^\s+//; |
1076 | s/\s+$//; |
1077 | } |
a0d0e21e |
1078 | |
1079 | s/([^ ]*) *([^ ]*)/$2 $1/; # reverse 1st two fields |
1080 | |
54310121 |
1081 | Note the use of $ instead of \ in the last example. Unlike |
5f05dabc |
1082 | B<sed>, we use the \E<lt>I<digit>E<gt> form in only the left hand side. |
6ee5d4e7 |
1083 | Anywhere else it's $E<lt>I<digit>E<gt>. |
a0d0e21e |
1084 | |
5f05dabc |
1085 | Occasionally, you can't use just a C</g> to get all the changes |
a0d0e21e |
1086 | to occur. Here are two common cases: |
1087 | |
1088 | # put commas in the right places in an integer |
1089 | 1 while s/(.*\d)(\d\d\d)/$1,$2/g; # perl4 |
1090 | 1 while s/(\d)(\d\d\d)(?!\d)/$1,$2/g; # perl5 |
1091 | |
1092 | # expand tabs to 8-column spacing |
1093 | 1 while s/\t+/' ' x (length($&)*8 - length($`)%8)/e; |
1094 | |
1095 | |
1096 | =item tr/SEARCHLIST/REPLACEMENTLIST/cds |
1097 | |
1098 | =item y/SEARCHLIST/REPLACEMENTLIST/cds |
1099 | |
2c268ad5 |
1100 | Transliterates all occurrences of the characters found in the search list |
a0d0e21e |
1101 | with the corresponding character in the replacement list. It returns |
1102 | the number of characters replaced or deleted. If no string is |
2c268ad5 |
1103 | specified via the =~ or !~ operator, the $_ string is transliterated. (The |
54310121 |
1104 | string specified with =~ must be a scalar variable, an array element, a |
1105 | hash element, or an assignment to one of those, i.e., an lvalue.) |
2c268ad5 |
1106 | A character range may be specified with a hyphen, so C<tr/A-J/0-9/> |
1107 | does the same replacement as C<tr/ACEGIBDFHJ/0246813579/>. |
54310121 |
1108 | For B<sed> devotees, C<y> is provided as a synonym for C<tr>. If the |
1109 | SEARCHLIST is delimited by bracketing quotes, the REPLACEMENTLIST has |
1110 | its own pair of quotes, which may or may not be bracketing quotes, |
2c268ad5 |
1111 | e.g., C<tr[A-Z][a-z]> or C<tr(+\-*/)/ABCD/>. |
a0d0e21e |
1112 | |
1113 | Options: |
1114 | |
1115 | c Complement the SEARCHLIST. |
1116 | d Delete found but unreplaced characters. |
1117 | s Squash duplicate replaced characters. |
1118 | |
1119 | If the C</c> modifier is specified, the SEARCHLIST character set is |
1120 | complemented. If the C</d> modifier is specified, any characters specified |
1121 | by SEARCHLIST not found in REPLACEMENTLIST are deleted. (Note |
1122 | that this is slightly more flexible than the behavior of some B<tr> |
1123 | programs, which delete anything they find in the SEARCHLIST, period.) |
1124 | If the C</s> modifier is specified, sequences of characters that were |
2c268ad5 |
1125 | transliterated to the same character are squashed down to a single instance of the |
a0d0e21e |
1126 | character. |
1127 | |
1128 | If the C</d> modifier is used, the REPLACEMENTLIST is always interpreted |
1129 | exactly as specified. Otherwise, if the REPLACEMENTLIST is shorter |
1130 | than the SEARCHLIST, the final character is replicated till it is long |
5a964f20 |
1131 | enough. If the REPLACEMENTLIST is empty, the SEARCHLIST is replicated. |
a0d0e21e |
1132 | This latter is useful for counting characters in a class or for |
1133 | squashing character sequences in a class. |
1134 | |
1135 | Examples: |
1136 | |
1137 | $ARGV[1] =~ tr/A-Z/a-z/; # canonicalize to lower case |
1138 | |
1139 | $cnt = tr/*/*/; # count the stars in $_ |
1140 | |
1141 | $cnt = $sky =~ tr/*/*/; # count the stars in $sky |
1142 | |
1143 | $cnt = tr/0-9//; # count the digits in $_ |
1144 | |
1145 | tr/a-zA-Z//s; # bookkeeper -> bokeper |
1146 | |
1147 | ($HOST = $host) =~ tr/a-z/A-Z/; |
1148 | |
1149 | tr/a-zA-Z/ /cs; # change non-alphas to single space |
1150 | |
1151 | tr [\200-\377] |
1152 | [\000-\177]; # delete 8th bit |
1153 | |
2c268ad5 |
1154 | If multiple transliterations are given for a character, only the first one is used: |
748a9306 |
1155 | |
1156 | tr/AAA/XYZ/ |
1157 | |
2c268ad5 |
1158 | will transliterate any A to X. |
748a9306 |
1159 | |
2c268ad5 |
1160 | Note that because the transliteration table is built at compile time, neither |
a0d0e21e |
1161 | the SEARCHLIST nor the REPLACEMENTLIST are subjected to double quote |
1162 | interpolation. That means that if you want to use variables, you must use |
1163 | an eval(): |
1164 | |
1165 | eval "tr/$oldlist/$newlist/"; |
1166 | die $@ if $@; |
1167 | |
1168 | eval "tr/$oldlist/$newlist/, 1" or die $@; |
1169 | |
1170 | =back |
1171 | |
1172 | =head2 I/O Operators |
1173 | |
54310121 |
1174 | There are several I/O operators you should know about. |
7b8d334a |
1175 | A string enclosed by backticks (grave accents) first undergoes |
a0d0e21e |
1176 | variable substitution just like a double quoted string. It is then |
1177 | interpreted as a command, and the output of that command is the value |
5a964f20 |
1178 | of the pseudo-literal, like in a shell. In scalar context, a single |
1179 | string consisting of all the output is returned. In list context, |
a0d0e21e |
1180 | a list of values is returned, one for each line of output. (You can |
1181 | set C<$/> to use a different line terminator.) The command is executed |
1182 | each time the pseudo-literal is evaluated. The status value of the |
1183 | command is returned in C<$?> (see L<perlvar> for the interpretation |
1184 | of C<$?>). Unlike in B<csh>, no translation is done on the return |
1185 | data--newlines remain newlines. Unlike in any of the shells, single |
1186 | quotes do not hide variable names in the command from interpretation. |
1187 | To pass a $ through to the shell you need to hide it with a backslash. |
54310121 |
1188 | The generalized form of backticks is C<qx//>. (Because backticks |
1189 | always undergo shell expansion as well, see L<perlsec> for |
cb1a09d0 |
1190 | security concerns.) |
a0d0e21e |
1191 | |
1192 | Evaluating a filehandle in angle brackets yields the next line from |
aa689395 |
1193 | that file (newline, if any, included), or C<undef> at end of file. |
1194 | Ordinarily you must assign that value to a variable, but there is one |
1195 | situation where an automatic assignment happens. I<If and ONLY if> the |
1196 | input symbol is the only thing inside the conditional of a C<while> or |
1197 | C<for(;;)> loop, the value is automatically assigned to the variable |
7b8d334a |
1198 | C<$_>. In these loop constructs, the assigned value (whether assignment |
5a964f20 |
1199 | is automatic or explicit) is then tested to see if it is defined. |
7b8d334a |
1200 | The defined test avoids problems where line has a string value |
1201 | that would be treated as false by perl e.g. "" or "0" with no trailing |
1202 | newline. (This may seem like an odd thing to you, but you'll use the |
1203 | construct in almost every Perl script you write.) Anyway, the following |
1204 | lines are equivalent to each other: |
a0d0e21e |
1205 | |
748a9306 |
1206 | while (defined($_ = <STDIN>)) { print; } |
7b8d334a |
1207 | while ($_ = <STDIN>) { print; } |
a0d0e21e |
1208 | while (<STDIN>) { print; } |
1209 | for (;<STDIN>;) { print; } |
748a9306 |
1210 | print while defined($_ = <STDIN>); |
7b8d334a |
1211 | print while ($_ = <STDIN>); |
a0d0e21e |
1212 | print while <STDIN>; |
1213 | |
7b8d334a |
1214 | and this also behaves similarly, but avoids the use of $_ : |
1215 | |
1216 | while (my $line = <STDIN>) { print $line } |
1217 | |
1218 | If you really mean such values to terminate the loop they should be |
5a964f20 |
1219 | tested for explicitly: |
7b8d334a |
1220 | |
1221 | while (($_ = <STDIN>) ne '0') { ... } |
1222 | while (<STDIN>) { last unless $_; ... } |
1223 | |
5a964f20 |
1224 | In other boolean contexts, C<E<lt>I<filehandle>E<gt>> without explicit C<defined> |
7b8d334a |
1225 | test or comparison will solicit a warning if C<-w> is in effect. |
1226 | |
5f05dabc |
1227 | The filehandles STDIN, STDOUT, and STDERR are predefined. (The |
1228 | filehandles C<stdin>, C<stdout>, and C<stderr> will also work except in |
a0d0e21e |
1229 | packages, where they would be interpreted as local identifiers rather |
1230 | than global.) Additional filehandles may be created with the open() |
cb1a09d0 |
1231 | function. See L<perlfunc/open()> for details on this. |
a0d0e21e |
1232 | |
6ee5d4e7 |
1233 | If a E<lt>FILEHANDLEE<gt> is used in a context that is looking for a list, a |
a0d0e21e |
1234 | list consisting of all the input lines is returned, one line per list |
1235 | element. It's easy to make a I<LARGE> data space this way, so use with |
1236 | care. |
1237 | |
d28ebecd |
1238 | The null filehandle E<lt>E<gt> is special and can be used to emulate the |
1239 | behavior of B<sed> and B<awk>. Input from E<lt>E<gt> comes either from |
a0d0e21e |
1240 | standard input, or from each file listed on the command line. Here's |
d28ebecd |
1241 | how it works: the first time E<lt>E<gt> is evaluated, the @ARGV array is |
5a964f20 |
1242 | checked, and if it is empty, C<$ARGV[0]> is set to "-", which when opened |
a0d0e21e |
1243 | gives you standard input. The @ARGV array is then processed as a list |
1244 | of filenames. The loop |
1245 | |
1246 | while (<>) { |
1247 | ... # code for each line |
1248 | } |
1249 | |
1250 | is equivalent to the following Perl-like pseudo code: |
1251 | |
3e3baf6d |
1252 | unshift(@ARGV, '-') unless @ARGV; |
a0d0e21e |
1253 | while ($ARGV = shift) { |
1254 | open(ARGV, $ARGV); |
1255 | while (<ARGV>) { |
1256 | ... # code for each line |
1257 | } |
1258 | } |
1259 | |
1260 | except that it isn't so cumbersome to say, and will actually work. It |
1261 | really does shift array @ARGV and put the current filename into variable |
5f05dabc |
1262 | $ARGV. It also uses filehandle I<ARGV> internally--E<lt>E<gt> is just a |
1263 | synonym for E<lt>ARGVE<gt>, which is magical. (The pseudo code above |
1264 | doesn't work because it treats E<lt>ARGVE<gt> as non-magical.) |
a0d0e21e |
1265 | |
d28ebecd |
1266 | You can modify @ARGV before the first E<lt>E<gt> as long as the array ends up |
a0d0e21e |
1267 | containing the list of filenames you really want. Line numbers (C<$.>) |
1268 | continue as if the input were one big happy file. (But see example |
5a964f20 |
1269 | under C<eof> for how to reset line numbers on each file.) |
1270 | |
1271 | If you want to set @ARGV to your own list of files, go right ahead. |
1272 | This sets @ARGV to all plain text files if no @ARGV was given: |
1273 | |
1274 | @ARGV = grep { -f && -T } glob('*') unless @ARGV; |
a0d0e21e |
1275 | |
5a964f20 |
1276 | You can even set them to pipe commands. For example, this automatically |
1277 | filters compressed arguments through B<gzip>: |
1278 | |
1279 | @ARGV = map { /\.(gz|Z)$/ ? "gzip -dc < $_ |" : $_ } @ARGV; |
1280 | |
1281 | If you want to pass switches into your script, you can use one of the |
a0d0e21e |
1282 | Getopts modules or put a loop on the front like this: |
1283 | |
1284 | while ($_ = $ARGV[0], /^-/) { |
1285 | shift; |
1286 | last if /^--$/; |
1287 | if (/^-D(.*)/) { $debug = $1 } |
1288 | if (/^-v/) { $verbose++ } |
5a964f20 |
1289 | # ... # other switches |
a0d0e21e |
1290 | } |
5a964f20 |
1291 | |
a0d0e21e |
1292 | while (<>) { |
5a964f20 |
1293 | # ... # code for each line |
a0d0e21e |
1294 | } |
1295 | |
7b8d334a |
1296 | The E<lt>E<gt> symbol will return C<undef> for end-of-file only once. |
1297 | If you call it again after this it will assume you are processing another |
1298 | @ARGV list, and if you haven't set @ARGV, will input from STDIN. |
a0d0e21e |
1299 | |
1300 | If the string inside the angle brackets is a reference to a scalar |
5f05dabc |
1301 | variable (e.g., E<lt>$fooE<gt>), then that variable contains the name of the |
5a964f20 |
1302 | filehandle to input from, or its typeglob, or a reference to the same. For example: |
cb1a09d0 |
1303 | |
1304 | $fh = \*STDIN; |
1305 | $line = <$fh>; |
a0d0e21e |
1306 | |
5a964f20 |
1307 | If what's within the angle brackets is neither a filehandle nor a simple |
1308 | scalar variable containing a filehandle name, typeglob, or typeglob |
1309 | reference, it is interpreted as a filename pattern to be globbed, and |
1310 | either a list of filenames or the next filename in the list is returned, |
1311 | depending on context. This distinction is determined on syntactic |
1312 | grounds alone. That means C<E<lt>$xE<gt>> is always a readline from |
1313 | an indirect handle, but C<E<lt>$hash{key}E<gt>> is always a glob. |
1314 | That's because $x is a simple scalar variable, but C<$hash{key}> is |
1315 | not--it's a hash element. |
1316 | |
1317 | One level of double-quote interpretation is done first, but you can't |
1318 | say C<E<lt>$fooE<gt>> because that's an indirect filehandle as explained |
1319 | in the previous paragraph. (In older versions of Perl, programmers |
1320 | would insert curly brackets to force interpretation as a filename glob: |
1321 | C<E<lt>${foo}E<gt>>. These days, it's considered cleaner to call the |
1322 | internal function directly as C<glob($foo)>, which is probably the right |
1323 | way to have done it in the first place.) Example: |
a0d0e21e |
1324 | |
1325 | while (<*.c>) { |
1326 | chmod 0644, $_; |
1327 | } |
1328 | |
1329 | is equivalent to |
1330 | |
1331 | open(FOO, "echo *.c | tr -s ' \t\r\f' '\\012\\012\\012\\012'|"); |
1332 | while (<FOO>) { |
1333 | chop; |
1334 | chmod 0644, $_; |
1335 | } |
1336 | |
1337 | In fact, it's currently implemented that way. (Which means it will not |
1338 | work on filenames with spaces in them unless you have csh(1) on your |
1339 | machine.) Of course, the shortest way to do the above is: |
1340 | |
1341 | chmod 0644, <*.c>; |
1342 | |
1343 | Because globbing invokes a shell, it's often faster to call readdir() yourself |
5f05dabc |
1344 | and do your own grep() on the filenames. Furthermore, due to its current |
54310121 |
1345 | implementation of using a shell, the glob() routine may get "Arg list too |
a0d0e21e |
1346 | long" errors (unless you've installed tcsh(1L) as F</bin/csh>). |
1347 | |
5f05dabc |
1348 | A glob evaluates its (embedded) argument only when it is starting a new |
4633a7c4 |
1349 | list. All values must be read before it will start over. In a list |
1350 | context this isn't important, because you automatically get them all |
5a964f20 |
1351 | anyway. In scalar context, however, the operator returns the next value |
7b8d334a |
1352 | each time it is called, or a C<undef> value if you've just run out. As |
1353 | for filehandles an automatic C<defined> is generated when the glob |
1354 | occurs in the test part of a C<while> or C<for> - because legal glob returns |
1355 | (e.g. a file called F<0>) would otherwise terminate the loop. |
1356 | Again, C<undef> is returned only once. So if you're expecting a single value |
1357 | from a glob, it is much better to say |
4633a7c4 |
1358 | |
1359 | ($file) = <blurch*>; |
1360 | |
1361 | than |
1362 | |
1363 | $file = <blurch*>; |
1364 | |
1365 | because the latter will alternate between returning a filename and |
54310121 |
1366 | returning FALSE. |
4633a7c4 |
1367 | |
1368 | It you're trying to do variable interpolation, it's definitely better |
1369 | to use the glob() function, because the older notation can cause people |
e37d713d |
1370 | to become confused with the indirect filehandle notation. |
4633a7c4 |
1371 | |
1372 | @files = glob("$dir/*.[ch]"); |
1373 | @files = glob($files[$i]); |
1374 | |
a0d0e21e |
1375 | =head2 Constant Folding |
1376 | |
1377 | Like C, Perl does a certain amount of expression evaluation at |
5a964f20 |
1378 | compile time, whenever it determines that all arguments to an |
a0d0e21e |
1379 | operator are static and have no side effects. In particular, string |
1380 | concatenation happens at compile time between literals that don't do |
1381 | variable substitution. Backslash interpretation also happens at |
1382 | compile time. You can say |
1383 | |
1384 | 'Now is the time for all' . "\n" . |
1385 | 'good men to come to.' |
1386 | |
54310121 |
1387 | and this all reduces to one string internally. Likewise, if |
a0d0e21e |
1388 | you say |
1389 | |
1390 | foreach $file (@filenames) { |
5a964f20 |
1391 | if (-s $file > 5 + 100 * 2**16) { } |
54310121 |
1392 | } |
a0d0e21e |
1393 | |
54310121 |
1394 | the compiler will precompute the number that |
a0d0e21e |
1395 | expression represents so that the interpreter |
1396 | won't have to. |
1397 | |
2c268ad5 |
1398 | =head2 Bitwise String Operators |
1399 | |
1400 | Bitstrings of any size may be manipulated by the bitwise operators |
1401 | (C<~ | & ^>). |
1402 | |
1403 | If the operands to a binary bitwise op are strings of different sizes, |
1404 | B<or> and B<xor> ops will act as if the shorter operand had additional |
1405 | zero bits on the right, while the B<and> op will act as if the longer |
1406 | operand were truncated to the length of the shorter. |
1407 | |
1408 | # ASCII-based examples |
1409 | print "j p \n" ^ " a h"; # prints "JAPH\n" |
1410 | print "JA" | " ph\n"; # prints "japh\n" |
1411 | print "japh\nJunk" & '_____'; # prints "JAPH\n"; |
1412 | print 'p N$' ^ " E<H\n"; # prints "Perl\n"; |
1413 | |
1414 | If you are intending to manipulate bitstrings, you should be certain that |
1415 | you're supplying bitstrings: If an operand is a number, that will imply |
1416 | a B<numeric> bitwise operation. You may explicitly show which type of |
1417 | operation you intend by using C<""> or C<0+>, as in the examples below. |
1418 | |
1419 | $foo = 150 | 105 ; # yields 255 (0x96 | 0x69 is 0xFF) |
1420 | $foo = '150' | 105 ; # yields 255 |
1421 | $foo = 150 | '105'; # yields 255 |
1422 | $foo = '150' | '105'; # yields string '155' (under ASCII) |
1423 | |
1424 | $baz = 0+$foo & 0+$bar; # both ops explicitly numeric |
1425 | $biz = "$foo" ^ "$bar"; # both ops explicitly stringy |
a0d0e21e |
1426 | |
55497cff |
1427 | =head2 Integer Arithmetic |
a0d0e21e |
1428 | |
1429 | By default Perl assumes that it must do most of its arithmetic in |
1430 | floating point. But by saying |
1431 | |
1432 | use integer; |
1433 | |
1434 | you may tell the compiler that it's okay to use integer operations |
1435 | from here to the end of the enclosing BLOCK. An inner BLOCK may |
54310121 |
1436 | countermand this by saying |
a0d0e21e |
1437 | |
1438 | no integer; |
1439 | |
1440 | which lasts until the end of that BLOCK. |
1441 | |
55497cff |
1442 | The bitwise operators ("&", "|", "^", "~", "<<", and ">>") always |
2c268ad5 |
1443 | produce integral results. (But see also L<Bitwise String Operators>.) |
1444 | However, C<use integer> still has meaning |
55497cff |
1445 | for them. By default, their results are interpreted as unsigned |
1446 | integers. However, if C<use integer> is in effect, their results are |
5f05dabc |
1447 | interpreted as signed integers. For example, C<~0> usually evaluates |
5a964f20 |
1448 | to a large integral value. However, C<use integer; ~0> is -1 on twos-complement machines. |
68dc0745 |
1449 | |
1450 | =head2 Floating-point Arithmetic |
1451 | |
1452 | While C<use integer> provides integer-only arithmetic, there is no |
1453 | similar ways to provide rounding or truncation at a certain number of |
1454 | decimal places. For rounding to a certain number of digits, sprintf() |
1455 | or printf() is usually the easiest route. |
1456 | |
5a964f20 |
1457 | Floating-point numbers are only approximations to what a mathematician |
1458 | would call real numbers. There are infinitely more reals than floats, |
1459 | so some corners must be cut. For example: |
1460 | |
1461 | printf "%.20g\n", 123456789123456789; |
1462 | # produces 123456789123456784 |
1463 | |
1464 | Testing for exact equality of floating-point equality or inequality is |
1465 | not a good idea. Here's a (relatively expensive) work-around to compare |
1466 | whether two floating-point numbers are equal to a particular number of |
1467 | decimal places. See Knuth, volume II, for a more robust treatment of |
1468 | this topic. |
1469 | |
1470 | sub fp_equal { |
1471 | my ($X, $Y, $POINTS) = @_; |
1472 | my ($tX, $tY); |
1473 | $tX = sprintf("%.${POINTS}g", $X); |
1474 | $tY = sprintf("%.${POINTS}g", $Y); |
1475 | return $tX eq $tY; |
1476 | } |
1477 | |
68dc0745 |
1478 | The POSIX module (part of the standard perl distribution) implements |
1479 | ceil(), floor(), and a number of other mathematical and trigonometric |
1480 | functions. The Math::Complex module (part of the standard perl |
1481 | distribution) defines a number of mathematical functions that can also |
1482 | work on real numbers. Math::Complex not as efficient as POSIX, but |
1483 | POSIX can't work with complex numbers. |
1484 | |
1485 | Rounding in financial applications can have serious implications, and |
1486 | the rounding method used should be specified precisely. In these |
1487 | cases, it probably pays not to trust whichever system rounding is |
1488 | being used by Perl, but to instead implement the rounding function you |
1489 | need yourself. |
5a964f20 |
1490 | |
1491 | =head2 Bigger Numbers |
1492 | |
1493 | The standard Math::BigInt and Math::BigFloat modules provide |
1494 | variable precision arithmetic and overloaded operators. |
1495 | At the cost of some space and considerable speed, they |
1496 | avoid the normal pitfalls associated with limited-precision |
1497 | representations. |
1498 | |
1499 | use Math::BigInt; |
1500 | $x = Math::BigInt->new('123456789123456789'); |
1501 | print $x * $x; |
1502 | |
1503 | # prints +15241578780673678515622620750190521 |