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1 | =head1 NAME |
2 | |
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3 | perlfaq4 - Data Manipulation ($Revision: 1.49 $, $Date: 1999/05/23 20:37:49 $) |
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4 | |
5 | =head1 DESCRIPTION |
6 | |
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7 | The section of the FAQ answers questions related to the manipulation |
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8 | of data as numbers, dates, strings, arrays, hashes, and miscellaneous |
9 | data issues. |
10 | |
11 | =head1 Data: Numbers |
12 | |
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13 | =head2 Why am I getting long decimals (eg, 19.9499999999999) instead of the numbers I should be getting (eg, 19.95)? |
14 | |
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15 | The infinite set that a mathematician thinks of as the real numbers can |
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16 | only be approximated on a computer, since the computer only has a finite |
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17 | number of bits to store an infinite number of, um, numbers. |
18 | |
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19 | Internally, your computer represents floating-point numbers in binary. |
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20 | Floating-point numbers read in from a file or appearing as literals |
21 | in your program are converted from their decimal floating-point |
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22 | representation (eg, 19.95) to an internal binary representation. |
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23 | |
24 | However, 19.95 can't be precisely represented as a binary |
25 | floating-point number, just like 1/3 can't be exactly represented as a |
26 | decimal floating-point number. The computer's binary representation |
27 | of 19.95, therefore, isn't exactly 19.95. |
28 | |
29 | When a floating-point number gets printed, the binary floating-point |
30 | representation is converted back to decimal. These decimal numbers |
31 | are displayed in either the format you specify with printf(), or the |
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32 | current output format for numbers. (See L<perlvar/"$#"> if you use |
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33 | print. C<$#> has a different default value in Perl5 than it did in |
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34 | Perl4. Changing C<$#> yourself is deprecated.) |
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35 | |
36 | This affects B<all> computer languages that represent decimal |
37 | floating-point numbers in binary, not just Perl. Perl provides |
38 | arbitrary-precision decimal numbers with the Math::BigFloat module |
39 | (part of the standard Perl distribution), but mathematical operations |
40 | are consequently slower. |
41 | |
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42 | If precision is important, such as when dealing with money, it's good |
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43 | to work with integers and then divide at the last possible moment. |
44 | For example, work in pennies (1995) instead of dollars and cents |
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45 | (19.95) and divide by 100 at the end. |
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46 | |
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47 | To get rid of the superfluous digits, just use a format (eg, |
48 | C<printf("%.2f", 19.95)>) to get the required precision. |
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49 | See L<perlop/"Floating-point Arithmetic">. |
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50 | |
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51 | =head2 Why isn't my octal data interpreted correctly? |
52 | |
53 | Perl only understands octal and hex numbers as such when they occur |
54 | as literals in your program. If they are read in from somewhere and |
55 | assigned, no automatic conversion takes place. You must explicitly |
56 | use oct() or hex() if you want the values converted. oct() interprets |
57 | both hex ("0x350") numbers and octal ones ("0350" or even without the |
58 | leading "0", like "377"), while hex() only converts hexadecimal ones, |
59 | with or without a leading "0x", like "0x255", "3A", "ff", or "deadbeef". |
60 | |
61 | This problem shows up most often when people try using chmod(), mkdir(), |
62 | umask(), or sysopen(), which all want permissions in octal. |
63 | |
64 | chmod(644, $file); # WRONG -- perl -w catches this |
65 | chmod(0644, $file); # right |
66 | |
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67 | =head2 Does Perl have a round() function? What about ceil() and floor()? Trig functions? |
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68 | |
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69 | Remember that int() merely truncates toward 0. For rounding to a |
70 | certain number of digits, sprintf() or printf() is usually the easiest |
71 | route. |
72 | |
73 | printf("%.3f", 3.1415926535); # prints 3.142 |
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74 | |
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75 | The POSIX module (part of the standard Perl distribution) implements |
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76 | ceil(), floor(), and a number of other mathematical and trigonometric |
77 | functions. |
78 | |
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79 | use POSIX; |
80 | $ceil = ceil(3.5); # 4 |
81 | $floor = floor(3.5); # 3 |
82 | |
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83 | In 5.000 to 5.003 perls, trigonometry was done in the Math::Complex |
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84 | module. With 5.004, the Math::Trig module (part of the standard Perl |
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85 | distribution) implements the trigonometric functions. Internally it |
86 | uses the Math::Complex module and some functions can break out from |
87 | the real axis into the complex plane, for example the inverse sine of |
88 | 2. |
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89 | |
90 | Rounding in financial applications can have serious implications, and |
91 | the rounding method used should be specified precisely. In these |
92 | cases, it probably pays not to trust whichever system rounding is |
93 | being used by Perl, but to instead implement the rounding function you |
94 | need yourself. |
95 | |
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96 | To see why, notice how you'll still have an issue on half-way-point |
97 | alternation: |
98 | |
99 | for ($i = 0; $i < 1.01; $i += 0.05) { printf "%.1f ",$i} |
100 | |
101 | 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 |
102 | 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.0 |
103 | |
104 | Don't blame Perl. It's the same as in C. IEEE says we have to do this. |
105 | Perl numbers whose absolute values are integers under 2**31 (on 32 bit |
106 | machines) will work pretty much like mathematical integers. Other numbers |
107 | are not guaranteed. |
108 | |
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109 | =head2 How do I convert bits into ints? |
110 | |
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111 | To turn a string of 1s and 0s like C<10110110> into a scalar containing |
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112 | its binary value, use the pack() and unpack() functions (documented in |
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113 | L<perlfunc/"pack"> and L<perlfunc/"unpack">): |
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114 | |
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115 | $decimal = unpack('c', pack('B8', '10110110')); |
116 | |
117 | This packs the string C<10110110> into an eight bit binary structure. |
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118 | This is then unpacked as a character, which returns its ordinal value. |
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119 | |
120 | This does the same thing: |
121 | |
122 | $decimal = ord(pack('B8', '10110110')); |
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123 | |
124 | Here's an example of going the other way: |
125 | |
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126 | $binary_string = unpack('B*', "\x29"); |
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127 | |
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128 | =head2 Why doesn't & work the way I want it to? |
129 | |
130 | The behavior of binary arithmetic operators depends on whether they're |
131 | used on numbers or strings. The operators treat a string as a series |
132 | of bits and work with that (the string C<"3"> is the bit pattern |
133 | C<00110011>). The operators work with the binary form of a number |
134 | (the number C<3> is treated as the bit pattern C<00000011>). |
135 | |
136 | So, saying C<11 & 3> performs the "and" operation on numbers (yielding |
137 | C<1>). Saying C<"11" & "3"> performs the "and" operation on strings |
138 | (yielding C<"1">). |
139 | |
140 | Most problems with C<&> and C<|> arise because the programmer thinks |
141 | they have a number but really it's a string. The rest arise because |
142 | the programmer says: |
143 | |
144 | if ("\020\020" & "\101\101") { |
145 | # ... |
146 | } |
147 | |
148 | but a string consisting of two null bytes (the result of C<"\020\020" |
149 | & "\101\101">) is not a false value in Perl. You need: |
150 | |
151 | if ( ("\020\020" & "\101\101") !~ /[^\000]/) { |
152 | # ... |
153 | } |
154 | |
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155 | =head2 How do I multiply matrices? |
156 | |
157 | Use the Math::Matrix or Math::MatrixReal modules (available from CPAN) |
158 | or the PDL extension (also available from CPAN). |
159 | |
160 | =head2 How do I perform an operation on a series of integers? |
161 | |
162 | To call a function on each element in an array, and collect the |
163 | results, use: |
164 | |
165 | @results = map { my_func($_) } @array; |
166 | |
167 | For example: |
168 | |
169 | @triple = map { 3 * $_ } @single; |
170 | |
171 | To call a function on each element of an array, but ignore the |
172 | results: |
173 | |
174 | foreach $iterator (@array) { |
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175 | some_func($iterator); |
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176 | } |
177 | |
178 | To call a function on each integer in a (small) range, you B<can> use: |
179 | |
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180 | @results = map { some_func($_) } (5 .. 25); |
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181 | |
182 | but you should be aware that the C<..> operator creates an array of |
183 | all integers in the range. This can take a lot of memory for large |
184 | ranges. Instead use: |
185 | |
186 | @results = (); |
187 | for ($i=5; $i < 500_005; $i++) { |
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188 | push(@results, some_func($i)); |
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189 | } |
190 | |
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191 | This situation has been fixed in Perl5.005. Use of C<..> in a C<for> |
192 | loop will iterate over the range, without creating the entire range. |
193 | |
194 | for my $i (5 .. 500_005) { |
195 | push(@results, some_func($i)); |
196 | } |
197 | |
198 | will not create a list of 500,000 integers. |
199 | |
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200 | =head2 How can I output Roman numerals? |
201 | |
202 | Get the http://www.perl.com/CPAN/modules/by-module/Roman module. |
203 | |
204 | =head2 Why aren't my random numbers random? |
205 | |
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206 | If you're using a version of Perl before 5.004, you must call C<srand> |
207 | once at the start of your program to seed the random number generator. |
208 | 5.004 and later automatically call C<srand> at the beginning. Don't |
209 | call C<srand> more than once--you make your numbers less random, rather |
210 | than more. |
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211 | |
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212 | Computers are good at being predictable and bad at being random |
213 | (despite appearances caused by bugs in your programs :-). |
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214 | http://www.perl.com/CPAN/doc/FMTEYEWTK/random , courtesy of Tom |
215 | Phoenix, talks more about this. John von Neumann said, ``Anyone who |
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216 | attempts to generate random numbers by deterministic means is, of |
217 | course, living in a state of sin.'' |
218 | |
219 | If you want numbers that are more random than C<rand> with C<srand> |
220 | provides, you should also check out the Math::TrulyRandom module from |
221 | CPAN. It uses the imperfections in your system's timer to generate |
222 | random numbers, but this takes quite a while. If you want a better |
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223 | pseudorandom generator than comes with your operating system, look at |
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224 | ``Numerical Recipes in C'' at http://www.nr.com/ . |
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225 | |
226 | =head1 Data: Dates |
227 | |
228 | =head2 How do I find the week-of-the-year/day-of-the-year? |
229 | |
230 | The day of the year is in the array returned by localtime() (see |
231 | L<perlfunc/"localtime">): |
232 | |
233 | $day_of_year = (localtime(time()))[7]; |
234 | |
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235 | or more legibly (in 5.7.1 or higher): |
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236 | |
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237 | use Time::Piece; |
238 | $day_of_year = localtime->day_of_year(); |
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239 | |
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240 | You can find the week of the year by using Time::Piece's strftime(): |
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241 | |
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242 | $week_of_year = localtime->strftime("%U"); |
243 | $iso_week = localtime->strftime("%V"); |
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244 | |
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245 | The difference between %U and %V is that %U assumes that the first day |
246 | of week 1 is the first Sunday of the year, whereas ISO 8601:1988 uses |
247 | the first week that has at least 4 days in the current year, and with |
248 | Monday as the first day of the week. You can also use %W, which will |
249 | return the week of the year with Monday as the first day of week 1. See |
250 | your strftime(3) man page for more details. |
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251 | |
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252 | =head2 How do I find the current century or millennium? |
253 | |
254 | Use the following simple functions: |
255 | |
256 | sub get_century { |
257 | return int((((localtime(shift || time))[5] + 1999))/100); |
258 | } |
259 | sub get_millennium { |
260 | return 1+int((((localtime(shift || time))[5] + 1899))/1000); |
261 | } |
262 | |
263 | On some systems, you'll find that the POSIX module's strftime() function |
264 | has been extended in a non-standard way to use a C<%C> format, which they |
265 | sometimes claim is the "century". It isn't, because on most such systems, |
266 | this is only the first two digits of the four-digit year, and thus cannot |
267 | be used to reliably determine the current century or millennium. |
268 | |
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269 | =head2 How can I compare two dates and find the difference? |
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270 | |
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271 | If you're storing your dates as epoch seconds then simply subtract one |
272 | from the other. If you've got a structured date (distinct year, day, |
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273 | month, hour, minute, seconds values), then for reasons of accessibility, |
274 | simplicity, and efficiency, merely use either timelocal or timegm (from |
275 | the Time::Local module in the standard distribution) to reduce structured |
276 | dates to epoch seconds. However, if you don't know the precise format of |
277 | your dates, then you should probably use either of the Date::Manip and |
278 | Date::Calc modules from CPAN before you go hacking up your own parsing |
279 | routine to handle arbitrary date formats. |
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280 | |
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281 | Also note that the core module Time::Piece overloads the addition and |
282 | subtraction operators to provide date calculation options. See |
283 | L<Time::Piece/Date Calculations>. |
284 | |
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285 | =head2 How can I take a string and turn it into epoch seconds? |
286 | |
287 | If it's a regular enough string that it always has the same format, |
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288 | you can split it up and pass the parts to C<timelocal> in the standard |
289 | Time::Local module. Otherwise, you should look into the Date::Calc |
290 | and Date::Manip modules from CPAN. |
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291 | |
292 | =head2 How can I find the Julian Day? |
293 | |
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294 | Use Time::Piece as follows: |
295 | |
296 | use Time::Piece; |
297 | my $julian_day = localtime->julian_day; |
298 | my $mjd = localtime->mjd; # modified julian day |
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299 | |
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300 | Before you immerse yourself too deeply in this, be sure to verify that |
301 | it is the I<Julian> Day you really want. Are you interested in a way |
302 | of getting serial days so that you just can tell how many days they |
303 | are apart or so that you can do also other date arithmetic? If you |
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304 | are interested in performing date arithmetic, this can be done using |
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305 | Time::Piece (standard module since Perl 5.8), or by modules |
306 | Date::Manip or Date::Calc. |
307 | |
308 | There is too many details and much confusion on this issue to cover in |
309 | this FAQ, but the term is applied (correctly) to a calendar now |
310 | supplanted by the Gregorian Calendar, with the Julian Calendar failing |
311 | to adjust properly for leap years on centennial years (among other |
312 | annoyances). The term is also used (incorrectly) to mean: [1] days in |
313 | the Gregorian Calendar; and [2] days since a particular starting time |
314 | or `epoch', usually 1970 in the Unix world and 1980 in the |
315 | MS-DOS/Windows world. If you find that it is not the first meaning |
316 | that you really want, then check out the Date::Manip and Date::Calc |
317 | modules. (Thanks to David Cassell for most of this text.) |
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318 | |
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319 | =head2 How do I find yesterday's date? |
320 | |
321 | The C<time()> function returns the current time in seconds since the |
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322 | epoch. Take twenty-four hours off that: |
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323 | |
324 | $yesterday = time() - ( 24 * 60 * 60 ); |
325 | |
326 | Then you can pass this to C<localtime()> and get the individual year, |
327 | month, day, hour, minute, seconds values. |
328 | |
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329 | Alternatively, you can use Time::Piece to subtract a day from the value |
330 | returned from C<localtime()>: |
331 | |
332 | use Time::Piece; |
333 | use Time::Seconds; # imports seconds constants, like ONE_DAY |
334 | my $today = localtime(); |
335 | my $yesterday = $today - ONE_DAY; |
336 | |
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337 | Note very carefully that the code above assumes that your days are |
338 | twenty-four hours each. For most people, there are two days a year |
339 | when they aren't: the switch to and from summer time throws this off. |
340 | A solution to this issue is offered by Russ Allbery. |
341 | |
342 | sub yesterday { |
343 | my $now = defined $_[0] ? $_[0] : time; |
344 | my $then = $now - 60 * 60 * 24; |
345 | my $ndst = (localtime $now)[8] > 0; |
346 | my $tdst = (localtime $then)[8] > 0; |
347 | $then - ($tdst - $ndst) * 60 * 60; |
348 | } |
349 | # Should give you "this time yesterday" in seconds since epoch relative to |
350 | # the first argument or the current time if no argument is given and |
351 | # suitable for passing to localtime or whatever else you need to do with |
352 | # it. $ndst is whether we're currently in daylight savings time; $tdst is |
353 | # whether the point 24 hours ago was in daylight savings time. If $tdst |
354 | # and $ndst are the same, a boundary wasn't crossed, and the correction |
355 | # will subtract 0. If $tdst is 1 and $ndst is 0, subtract an hour more |
356 | # from yesterday's time since we gained an extra hour while going off |
357 | # daylight savings time. If $tdst is 0 and $ndst is 1, subtract a |
358 | # negative hour (add an hour) to yesterday's time since we lost an hour. |
359 | # |
360 | # All of this is because during those days when one switches off or onto |
361 | # DST, a "day" isn't 24 hours long; it's either 23 or 25. |
362 | # |
363 | # The explicit settings of $ndst and $tdst are necessary because localtime |
364 | # only says it returns the system tm struct, and the system tm struct at |
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365 | # least on Solaris doesn't guarantee any particular positive value (like, |
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366 | # say, 1) for isdst, just a positive value. And that value can |
367 | # potentially be negative, if DST information isn't available (this sub |
368 | # just treats those cases like no DST). |
369 | # |
370 | # Note that between 2am and 3am on the day after the time zone switches |
371 | # off daylight savings time, the exact hour of "yesterday" corresponding |
372 | # to the current hour is not clearly defined. Note also that if used |
373 | # between 2am and 3am the day after the change to daylight savings time, |
374 | # the result will be between 3am and 4am of the previous day; it's |
375 | # arguable whether this is correct. |
376 | # |
377 | # This sub does not attempt to deal with leap seconds (most things don't). |
378 | # |
379 | # Copyright relinquished 1999 by Russ Allbery <rra@stanford.edu> |
380 | # This code is in the public domain |
381 | |
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382 | =head2 Does Perl have a Year 2000 problem? Is Perl Y2K compliant? |
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383 | |
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384 | Short answer: No, Perl does not have a Year 2000 problem. Yes, Perl is |
385 | Y2K compliant (whatever that means). The programmers you've hired to |
386 | use it, however, probably are not. |
387 | |
388 | Long answer: The question belies a true understanding of the issue. |
389 | Perl is just as Y2K compliant as your pencil--no more, and no less. |
390 | Can you use your pencil to write a non-Y2K-compliant memo? Of course |
391 | you can. Is that the pencil's fault? Of course it isn't. |
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392 | |
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393 | The date and time functions supplied with Perl (gmtime and localtime) |
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394 | supply adequate information to determine the year well beyond 2000 |
395 | (2038 is when trouble strikes for 32-bit machines). The year returned |
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396 | by these functions when used in a list context is the year minus 1900. |
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397 | For years between 1910 and 1999 this I<happens> to be a 2-digit decimal |
398 | number. To avoid the year 2000 problem simply do not treat the year as |
399 | a 2-digit number. It isn't. |
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400 | |
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401 | When gmtime() and localtime() are used in scalar context they return |
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402 | a timestamp string that contains a fully-expanded year. For example, |
403 | C<$timestamp = gmtime(1005613200)> sets $timestamp to "Tue Nov 13 01:00:00 |
404 | 2001". There's no year 2000 problem here. |
405 | |
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406 | That doesn't mean that Perl can't be used to create non-Y2K compliant |
407 | programs. It can. But so can your pencil. It's the fault of the user, |
408 | not the language. At the risk of inflaming the NRA: ``Perl doesn't |
409 | break Y2K, people do.'' See http://language.perl.com/news/y2k.html for |
410 | a longer exposition. |
411 | |
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412 | =head1 Data: Strings |
413 | |
414 | =head2 How do I validate input? |
415 | |
416 | The answer to this question is usually a regular expression, perhaps |
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417 | with auxiliary logic. See the more specific questions (numbers, mail |
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418 | addresses, etc.) for details. |
419 | |
420 | =head2 How do I unescape a string? |
421 | |
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422 | It depends just what you mean by ``escape''. URL escapes are dealt |
423 | with in L<perlfaq9>. Shell escapes with the backslash (C<\>) |
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424 | character are removed with |
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425 | |
426 | s/\\(.)/$1/g; |
427 | |
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428 | This won't expand C<"\n"> or C<"\t"> or any other special escapes. |
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429 | |
430 | =head2 How do I remove consecutive pairs of characters? |
431 | |
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432 | To turn C<"abbcccd"> into C<"abccd">: |
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433 | |
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434 | s/(.)\1/$1/g; # add /s to include newlines |
435 | |
436 | Here's a solution that turns "abbcccd" to "abcd": |
437 | |
438 | y///cs; # y == tr, but shorter :-) |
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439 | |
440 | =head2 How do I expand function calls in a string? |
441 | |
442 | This is documented in L<perlref>. In general, this is fraught with |
443 | quoting and readability problems, but it is possible. To interpolate |
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444 | a subroutine call (in list context) into a string: |
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445 | |
446 | print "My sub returned @{[mysub(1,2,3)]} that time.\n"; |
447 | |
448 | If you prefer scalar context, similar chicanery is also useful for |
449 | arbitrary expressions: |
450 | |
451 | print "That yields ${\($n + 5)} widgets\n"; |
452 | |
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453 | Version 5.004 of Perl had a bug that gave list context to the |
454 | expression in C<${...}>, but this is fixed in version 5.005. |
455 | |
456 | See also ``How can I expand variables in text strings?'' in this |
457 | section of the FAQ. |
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458 | |
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459 | =head2 How do I find matching/nesting anything? |
460 | |
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461 | This isn't something that can be done in one regular expression, no |
462 | matter how complicated. To find something between two single |
463 | characters, a pattern like C</x([^x]*)x/> will get the intervening |
464 | bits in $1. For multiple ones, then something more like |
465 | C</alpha(.*?)omega/> would be needed. But none of these deals with |
466 | nested patterns, nor can they. For that you'll have to write a |
467 | parser. |
468 | |
469 | If you are serious about writing a parser, there are a number of |
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470 | modules or oddities that will make your life a lot easier. There are |
471 | the CPAN modules Parse::RecDescent, Parse::Yapp, and Text::Balanced; |
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472 | and the byacc program. Starting from perl 5.8 the Text::Balanced |
473 | is part of the standard distribution. |
68dc0745 |
474 | |
92c2ed05 |
475 | One simple destructive, inside-out approach that you might try is to |
476 | pull out the smallest nesting parts one at a time: |
5a964f20 |
477 | |
d92eb7b0 |
478 | while (s/BEGIN((?:(?!BEGIN)(?!END).)*)END//gs) { |
5a964f20 |
479 | # do something with $1 |
480 | } |
481 | |
65acb1b1 |
482 | A more complicated and sneaky approach is to make Perl's regular |
483 | expression engine do it for you. This is courtesy Dean Inada, and |
484 | rather has the nature of an Obfuscated Perl Contest entry, but it |
485 | really does work: |
486 | |
487 | # $_ contains the string to parse |
488 | # BEGIN and END are the opening and closing markers for the |
489 | # nested text. |
c47ff5f1 |
490 | |
65acb1b1 |
491 | @( = ('(',''); |
492 | @) = (')',''); |
493 | ($re=$_)=~s/((BEGIN)|(END)|.)/$)[!$3]\Q$1\E$([!$2]/gs; |
494 | @$ = (eval{/$re/},$@!~/unmatched/); |
495 | print join("\n",@$[0..$#$]) if( $$[-1] ); |
496 | |
68dc0745 |
497 | =head2 How do I reverse a string? |
498 | |
5a964f20 |
499 | Use reverse() in scalar context, as documented in |
68dc0745 |
500 | L<perlfunc/reverse>. |
501 | |
502 | $reversed = reverse $string; |
503 | |
504 | =head2 How do I expand tabs in a string? |
505 | |
5a964f20 |
506 | You can do it yourself: |
68dc0745 |
507 | |
508 | 1 while $string =~ s/\t+/' ' x (length($&) * 8 - length($`) % 8)/e; |
509 | |
87275199 |
510 | Or you can just use the Text::Tabs module (part of the standard Perl |
68dc0745 |
511 | distribution). |
512 | |
513 | use Text::Tabs; |
514 | @expanded_lines = expand(@lines_with_tabs); |
515 | |
516 | =head2 How do I reformat a paragraph? |
517 | |
87275199 |
518 | Use Text::Wrap (part of the standard Perl distribution): |
68dc0745 |
519 | |
520 | use Text::Wrap; |
521 | print wrap("\t", ' ', @paragraphs); |
522 | |
92c2ed05 |
523 | The paragraphs you give to Text::Wrap should not contain embedded |
46fc3d4c |
524 | newlines. Text::Wrap doesn't justify the lines (flush-right). |
525 | |
68dc0745 |
526 | =head2 How can I access/change the first N letters of a string? |
527 | |
528 | There are many ways. If you just want to grab a copy, use |
92c2ed05 |
529 | substr(): |
68dc0745 |
530 | |
531 | $first_byte = substr($a, 0, 1); |
532 | |
533 | If you want to modify part of a string, the simplest way is often to |
534 | use substr() as an lvalue: |
535 | |
536 | substr($a, 0, 3) = "Tom"; |
537 | |
92c2ed05 |
538 | Although those with a pattern matching kind of thought process will |
a6dd486b |
539 | likely prefer |
68dc0745 |
540 | |
541 | $a =~ s/^.../Tom/; |
542 | |
543 | =head2 How do I change the Nth occurrence of something? |
544 | |
92c2ed05 |
545 | You have to keep track of N yourself. For example, let's say you want |
546 | to change the fifth occurrence of C<"whoever"> or C<"whomever"> into |
d92eb7b0 |
547 | C<"whosoever"> or C<"whomsoever">, case insensitively. These |
548 | all assume that $_ contains the string to be altered. |
68dc0745 |
549 | |
550 | $count = 0; |
551 | s{((whom?)ever)}{ |
552 | ++$count == 5 # is it the 5th? |
553 | ? "${2}soever" # yes, swap |
554 | : $1 # renege and leave it there |
d92eb7b0 |
555 | }ige; |
68dc0745 |
556 | |
5a964f20 |
557 | In the more general case, you can use the C</g> modifier in a C<while> |
558 | loop, keeping count of matches. |
559 | |
560 | $WANT = 3; |
561 | $count = 0; |
d92eb7b0 |
562 | $_ = "One fish two fish red fish blue fish"; |
5a964f20 |
563 | while (/(\w+)\s+fish\b/gi) { |
564 | if (++$count == $WANT) { |
565 | print "The third fish is a $1 one.\n"; |
5a964f20 |
566 | } |
567 | } |
568 | |
92c2ed05 |
569 | That prints out: C<"The third fish is a red one."> You can also use a |
5a964f20 |
570 | repetition count and repeated pattern like this: |
571 | |
572 | /(?:\w+\s+fish\s+){2}(\w+)\s+fish/i; |
573 | |
68dc0745 |
574 | =head2 How can I count the number of occurrences of a substring within a string? |
575 | |
a6dd486b |
576 | There are a number of ways, with varying efficiency. If you want a |
68dc0745 |
577 | count of a certain single character (X) within a string, you can use the |
578 | C<tr///> function like so: |
579 | |
368c9434 |
580 | $string = "ThisXlineXhasXsomeXx'sXinXit"; |
68dc0745 |
581 | $count = ($string =~ tr/X//); |
d92eb7b0 |
582 | print "There are $count X characters in the string"; |
68dc0745 |
583 | |
584 | This is fine if you are just looking for a single character. However, |
585 | if you are trying to count multiple character substrings within a |
586 | larger string, C<tr///> won't work. What you can do is wrap a while() |
587 | loop around a global pattern match. For example, let's count negative |
588 | integers: |
589 | |
590 | $string = "-9 55 48 -2 23 -76 4 14 -44"; |
591 | while ($string =~ /-\d+/g) { $count++ } |
592 | print "There are $count negative numbers in the string"; |
593 | |
594 | =head2 How do I capitalize all the words on one line? |
595 | |
596 | To make the first letter of each word upper case: |
3fe9a6f1 |
597 | |
68dc0745 |
598 | $line =~ s/\b(\w)/\U$1/g; |
599 | |
46fc3d4c |
600 | This has the strange effect of turning "C<don't do it>" into "C<Don'T |
a6dd486b |
601 | Do It>". Sometimes you might want this. Other times you might need a |
602 | more thorough solution (Suggested by brian d. foy): |
46fc3d4c |
603 | |
604 | $string =~ s/ ( |
605 | (^\w) #at the beginning of the line |
606 | | # or |
607 | (\s\w) #preceded by whitespace |
608 | ) |
609 | /\U$1/xg; |
610 | $string =~ /([\w']+)/\u\L$1/g; |
611 | |
68dc0745 |
612 | To make the whole line upper case: |
3fe9a6f1 |
613 | |
68dc0745 |
614 | $line = uc($line); |
615 | |
616 | To force each word to be lower case, with the first letter upper case: |
3fe9a6f1 |
617 | |
68dc0745 |
618 | $line =~ s/(\w+)/\u\L$1/g; |
619 | |
5a964f20 |
620 | You can (and probably should) enable locale awareness of those |
621 | characters by placing a C<use locale> pragma in your program. |
92c2ed05 |
622 | See L<perllocale> for endless details on locales. |
5a964f20 |
623 | |
65acb1b1 |
624 | This is sometimes referred to as putting something into "title |
d92eb7b0 |
625 | case", but that's not quite accurate. Consider the proper |
65acb1b1 |
626 | capitalization of the movie I<Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to |
627 | Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb>, for example. |
628 | |
68dc0745 |
629 | =head2 How can I split a [character] delimited string except when inside |
630 | [character]? (Comma-separated files) |
631 | |
632 | Take the example case of trying to split a string that is comma-separated |
633 | into its different fields. (We'll pretend you said comma-separated, not |
634 | comma-delimited, which is different and almost never what you mean.) You |
635 | can't use C<split(/,/)> because you shouldn't split if the comma is inside |
636 | quotes. For example, take a data line like this: |
637 | |
638 | SAR001,"","Cimetrix, Inc","Bob Smith","CAM",N,8,1,0,7,"Error, Core Dumped" |
639 | |
640 | Due to the restriction of the quotes, this is a fairly complex |
641 | problem. Thankfully, we have Jeffrey Friedl, author of a highly |
642 | recommended book on regular expressions, to handle these for us. He |
643 | suggests (assuming your string is contained in $text): |
644 | |
645 | @new = (); |
646 | push(@new, $+) while $text =~ m{ |
647 | "([^\"\\]*(?:\\.[^\"\\]*)*)",? # groups the phrase inside the quotes |
648 | | ([^,]+),? |
649 | | , |
650 | }gx; |
651 | push(@new, undef) if substr($text,-1,1) eq ','; |
652 | |
46fc3d4c |
653 | If you want to represent quotation marks inside a |
654 | quotation-mark-delimited field, escape them with backslashes (eg, |
2ceaccd7 |
655 | C<"like \"this\"">. Unescaping them is a task addressed earlier in |
46fc3d4c |
656 | this section. |
657 | |
87275199 |
658 | Alternatively, the Text::ParseWords module (part of the standard Perl |
68dc0745 |
659 | distribution) lets you say: |
660 | |
661 | use Text::ParseWords; |
662 | @new = quotewords(",", 0, $text); |
663 | |
a6dd486b |
664 | There's also a Text::CSV (Comma-Separated Values) module on CPAN. |
65acb1b1 |
665 | |
68dc0745 |
666 | =head2 How do I strip blank space from the beginning/end of a string? |
667 | |
a6dd486b |
668 | Although the simplest approach would seem to be |
68dc0745 |
669 | |
670 | $string =~ s/^\s*(.*?)\s*$/$1/; |
671 | |
a6dd486b |
672 | not only is this unnecessarily slow and destructive, it also fails with |
d92eb7b0 |
673 | embedded newlines. It is much faster to do this operation in two steps: |
68dc0745 |
674 | |
675 | $string =~ s/^\s+//; |
676 | $string =~ s/\s+$//; |
677 | |
678 | Or more nicely written as: |
679 | |
680 | for ($string) { |
681 | s/^\s+//; |
682 | s/\s+$//; |
683 | } |
684 | |
5e3006a4 |
685 | This idiom takes advantage of the C<foreach> loop's aliasing |
5a964f20 |
686 | behavior to factor out common code. You can do this |
687 | on several strings at once, or arrays, or even the |
d92eb7b0 |
688 | values of a hash if you use a slice: |
5a964f20 |
689 | |
690 | # trim whitespace in the scalar, the array, |
691 | # and all the values in the hash |
692 | foreach ($scalar, @array, @hash{keys %hash}) { |
693 | s/^\s+//; |
694 | s/\s+$//; |
695 | } |
696 | |
65acb1b1 |
697 | =head2 How do I pad a string with blanks or pad a number with zeroes? |
698 | |
d92eb7b0 |
699 | (This answer contributed by Uri Guttman, with kibitzing from |
700 | Bart Lateur.) |
65acb1b1 |
701 | |
702 | In the following examples, C<$pad_len> is the length to which you wish |
d92eb7b0 |
703 | to pad the string, C<$text> or C<$num> contains the string to be padded, |
704 | and C<$pad_char> contains the padding character. You can use a single |
705 | character string constant instead of the C<$pad_char> variable if you |
706 | know what it is in advance. And in the same way you can use an integer in |
707 | place of C<$pad_len> if you know the pad length in advance. |
65acb1b1 |
708 | |
d92eb7b0 |
709 | The simplest method uses the C<sprintf> function. It can pad on the left |
710 | or right with blanks and on the left with zeroes and it will not |
711 | truncate the result. The C<pack> function can only pad strings on the |
712 | right with blanks and it will truncate the result to a maximum length of |
713 | C<$pad_len>. |
65acb1b1 |
714 | |
d92eb7b0 |
715 | # Left padding a string with blanks (no truncation): |
716 | $padded = sprintf("%${pad_len}s", $text); |
65acb1b1 |
717 | |
d92eb7b0 |
718 | # Right padding a string with blanks (no truncation): |
719 | $padded = sprintf("%-${pad_len}s", $text); |
65acb1b1 |
720 | |
d92eb7b0 |
721 | # Left padding a number with 0 (no truncation): |
722 | $padded = sprintf("%0${pad_len}d", $num); |
65acb1b1 |
723 | |
d92eb7b0 |
724 | # Right padding a string with blanks using pack (will truncate): |
725 | $padded = pack("A$pad_len",$text); |
65acb1b1 |
726 | |
d92eb7b0 |
727 | If you need to pad with a character other than blank or zero you can use |
728 | one of the following methods. They all generate a pad string with the |
729 | C<x> operator and combine that with C<$text>. These methods do |
730 | not truncate C<$text>. |
65acb1b1 |
731 | |
d92eb7b0 |
732 | Left and right padding with any character, creating a new string: |
65acb1b1 |
733 | |
d92eb7b0 |
734 | $padded = $pad_char x ( $pad_len - length( $text ) ) . $text; |
735 | $padded = $text . $pad_char x ( $pad_len - length( $text ) ); |
65acb1b1 |
736 | |
d92eb7b0 |
737 | Left and right padding with any character, modifying C<$text> directly: |
65acb1b1 |
738 | |
d92eb7b0 |
739 | substr( $text, 0, 0 ) = $pad_char x ( $pad_len - length( $text ) ); |
740 | $text .= $pad_char x ( $pad_len - length( $text ) ); |
65acb1b1 |
741 | |
68dc0745 |
742 | =head2 How do I extract selected columns from a string? |
743 | |
744 | Use substr() or unpack(), both documented in L<perlfunc>. |
5a964f20 |
745 | If you prefer thinking in terms of columns instead of widths, |
746 | you can use this kind of thing: |
747 | |
748 | # determine the unpack format needed to split Linux ps output |
749 | # arguments are cut columns |
750 | my $fmt = cut2fmt(8, 14, 20, 26, 30, 34, 41, 47, 59, 63, 67, 72); |
751 | |
752 | sub cut2fmt { |
753 | my(@positions) = @_; |
754 | my $template = ''; |
755 | my $lastpos = 1; |
756 | for my $place (@positions) { |
757 | $template .= "A" . ($place - $lastpos) . " "; |
758 | $lastpos = $place; |
759 | } |
760 | $template .= "A*"; |
761 | return $template; |
762 | } |
68dc0745 |
763 | |
764 | =head2 How do I find the soundex value of a string? |
765 | |
87275199 |
766 | Use the standard Text::Soundex module distributed with Perl. |
a6dd486b |
767 | Before you do so, you may want to determine whether `soundex' is in |
d92eb7b0 |
768 | fact what you think it is. Knuth's soundex algorithm compresses words |
769 | into a small space, and so it does not necessarily distinguish between |
770 | two words which you might want to appear separately. For example, the |
771 | last names `Knuth' and `Kant' are both mapped to the soundex code K530. |
772 | If Text::Soundex does not do what you are looking for, you might want |
773 | to consider the String::Approx module available at CPAN. |
68dc0745 |
774 | |
775 | =head2 How can I expand variables in text strings? |
776 | |
777 | Let's assume that you have a string like: |
778 | |
779 | $text = 'this has a $foo in it and a $bar'; |
5a964f20 |
780 | |
781 | If those were both global variables, then this would |
782 | suffice: |
783 | |
65acb1b1 |
784 | $text =~ s/\$(\w+)/${$1}/g; # no /e needed |
68dc0745 |
785 | |
5a964f20 |
786 | But since they are probably lexicals, or at least, they could |
787 | be, you'd have to do this: |
68dc0745 |
788 | |
789 | $text =~ s/(\$\w+)/$1/eeg; |
65acb1b1 |
790 | die if $@; # needed /ee, not /e |
68dc0745 |
791 | |
5a964f20 |
792 | It's probably better in the general case to treat those |
793 | variables as entries in some special hash. For example: |
794 | |
795 | %user_defs = ( |
796 | foo => 23, |
797 | bar => 19, |
798 | ); |
799 | $text =~ s/\$(\w+)/$user_defs{$1}/g; |
68dc0745 |
800 | |
92c2ed05 |
801 | See also ``How do I expand function calls in a string?'' in this section |
46fc3d4c |
802 | of the FAQ. |
803 | |
68dc0745 |
804 | =head2 What's wrong with always quoting "$vars"? |
805 | |
a6dd486b |
806 | The problem is that those double-quotes force stringification-- |
807 | coercing numbers and references into strings--even when you |
808 | don't want them to be strings. Think of it this way: double-quote |
65acb1b1 |
809 | expansion is used to produce new strings. If you already |
810 | have a string, why do you need more? |
68dc0745 |
811 | |
812 | If you get used to writing odd things like these: |
813 | |
814 | print "$var"; # BAD |
815 | $new = "$old"; # BAD |
816 | somefunc("$var"); # BAD |
817 | |
818 | You'll be in trouble. Those should (in 99.8% of the cases) be |
819 | the simpler and more direct: |
820 | |
821 | print $var; |
822 | $new = $old; |
823 | somefunc($var); |
824 | |
825 | Otherwise, besides slowing you down, you're going to break code when |
826 | the thing in the scalar is actually neither a string nor a number, but |
827 | a reference: |
828 | |
829 | func(\@array); |
830 | sub func { |
831 | my $aref = shift; |
832 | my $oref = "$aref"; # WRONG |
833 | } |
834 | |
835 | You can also get into subtle problems on those few operations in Perl |
836 | that actually do care about the difference between a string and a |
837 | number, such as the magical C<++> autoincrement operator or the |
838 | syscall() function. |
839 | |
5a964f20 |
840 | Stringification also destroys arrays. |
841 | |
842 | @lines = `command`; |
843 | print "@lines"; # WRONG - extra blanks |
844 | print @lines; # right |
845 | |
c47ff5f1 |
846 | =head2 Why don't my <<HERE documents work? |
68dc0745 |
847 | |
848 | Check for these three things: |
849 | |
850 | =over 4 |
851 | |
852 | =item 1. There must be no space after the << part. |
853 | |
854 | =item 2. There (probably) should be a semicolon at the end. |
855 | |
856 | =item 3. You can't (easily) have any space in front of the tag. |
857 | |
858 | =back |
859 | |
5a964f20 |
860 | If you want to indent the text in the here document, you |
861 | can do this: |
862 | |
863 | # all in one |
864 | ($VAR = <<HERE_TARGET) =~ s/^\s+//gm; |
865 | your text |
866 | goes here |
867 | HERE_TARGET |
868 | |
869 | But the HERE_TARGET must still be flush against the margin. |
870 | If you want that indented also, you'll have to quote |
871 | in the indentation. |
872 | |
873 | ($quote = <<' FINIS') =~ s/^\s+//gm; |
874 | ...we will have peace, when you and all your works have |
875 | perished--and the works of your dark master to whom you |
876 | would deliver us. You are a liar, Saruman, and a corrupter |
877 | of men's hearts. --Theoden in /usr/src/perl/taint.c |
878 | FINIS |
879 | $quote =~ s/\s*--/\n--/; |
880 | |
881 | A nice general-purpose fixer-upper function for indented here documents |
882 | follows. It expects to be called with a here document as its argument. |
883 | It looks to see whether each line begins with a common substring, and |
a6dd486b |
884 | if so, strips that substring off. Otherwise, it takes the amount of leading |
885 | whitespace found on the first line and removes that much off each |
5a964f20 |
886 | subsequent line. |
887 | |
888 | sub fix { |
889 | local $_ = shift; |
a6dd486b |
890 | my ($white, $leader); # common whitespace and common leading string |
5a964f20 |
891 | if (/^\s*(?:([^\w\s]+)(\s*).*\n)(?:\s*\1\2?.*\n)+$/) { |
892 | ($white, $leader) = ($2, quotemeta($1)); |
893 | } else { |
894 | ($white, $leader) = (/^(\s+)/, ''); |
895 | } |
896 | s/^\s*?$leader(?:$white)?//gm; |
897 | return $_; |
898 | } |
899 | |
c8db1d39 |
900 | This works with leading special strings, dynamically determined: |
5a964f20 |
901 | |
902 | $remember_the_main = fix<<' MAIN_INTERPRETER_LOOP'; |
903 | @@@ int |
904 | @@@ runops() { |
905 | @@@ SAVEI32(runlevel); |
906 | @@@ runlevel++; |
d92eb7b0 |
907 | @@@ while ( op = (*op->op_ppaddr)() ); |
5a964f20 |
908 | @@@ TAINT_NOT; |
909 | @@@ return 0; |
910 | @@@ } |
911 | MAIN_INTERPRETER_LOOP |
912 | |
a6dd486b |
913 | Or with a fixed amount of leading whitespace, with remaining |
5a964f20 |
914 | indentation correctly preserved: |
915 | |
916 | $poem = fix<<EVER_ON_AND_ON; |
917 | Now far ahead the Road has gone, |
918 | And I must follow, if I can, |
919 | Pursuing it with eager feet, |
920 | Until it joins some larger way |
921 | Where many paths and errands meet. |
922 | And whither then? I cannot say. |
923 | --Bilbo in /usr/src/perl/pp_ctl.c |
924 | EVER_ON_AND_ON |
925 | |
68dc0745 |
926 | =head1 Data: Arrays |
927 | |
65acb1b1 |
928 | =head2 What is the difference between a list and an array? |
929 | |
930 | An array has a changeable length. A list does not. An array is something |
931 | you can push or pop, while a list is a set of values. Some people make |
932 | the distinction that a list is a value while an array is a variable. |
933 | Subroutines are passed and return lists, you put things into list |
934 | context, you initialize arrays with lists, and you foreach() across |
935 | a list. C<@> variables are arrays, anonymous arrays are arrays, arrays |
936 | in scalar context behave like the number of elements in them, subroutines |
a6dd486b |
937 | access their arguments through the array C<@_>, and push/pop/shift only work |
65acb1b1 |
938 | on arrays. |
939 | |
940 | As a side note, there's no such thing as a list in scalar context. |
941 | When you say |
942 | |
943 | $scalar = (2, 5, 7, 9); |
944 | |
d92eb7b0 |
945 | you're using the comma operator in scalar context, so it uses the scalar |
946 | comma operator. There never was a list there at all! This causes the |
947 | last value to be returned: 9. |
65acb1b1 |
948 | |
68dc0745 |
949 | =head2 What is the difference between $array[1] and @array[1]? |
950 | |
a6dd486b |
951 | The former is a scalar value; the latter an array slice, making |
68dc0745 |
952 | it a list with one (scalar) value. You should use $ when you want a |
953 | scalar value (most of the time) and @ when you want a list with one |
954 | scalar value in it (very, very rarely; nearly never, in fact). |
955 | |
956 | Sometimes it doesn't make a difference, but sometimes it does. |
957 | For example, compare: |
958 | |
959 | $good[0] = `some program that outputs several lines`; |
960 | |
961 | with |
962 | |
963 | @bad[0] = `same program that outputs several lines`; |
964 | |
9f1b1f2d |
965 | The C<use warnings> pragma and the B<-w> flag will warn you about these |
966 | matters. |
68dc0745 |
967 | |
d92eb7b0 |
968 | =head2 How can I remove duplicate elements from a list or array? |
68dc0745 |
969 | |
970 | There are several possible ways, depending on whether the array is |
971 | ordered and whether you wish to preserve the ordering. |
972 | |
973 | =over 4 |
974 | |
551e1d92 |
975 | =item a) |
976 | |
977 | If @in is sorted, and you want @out to be sorted: |
5a964f20 |
978 | (this assumes all true values in the array) |
68dc0745 |
979 | |
a4341a65 |
980 | $prev = "not equal to $in[0]"; |
3bc5ef3e |
981 | @out = grep($_ ne $prev && ($prev = $_, 1), @in); |
68dc0745 |
982 | |
c8db1d39 |
983 | This is nice in that it doesn't use much extra memory, simulating |
3bc5ef3e |
984 | uniq(1)'s behavior of removing only adjacent duplicates. The ", 1" |
985 | guarantees that the expression is true (so that grep picks it up) |
986 | even if the $_ is 0, "", or undef. |
68dc0745 |
987 | |
551e1d92 |
988 | =item b) |
989 | |
990 | If you don't know whether @in is sorted: |
68dc0745 |
991 | |
992 | undef %saw; |
993 | @out = grep(!$saw{$_}++, @in); |
994 | |
551e1d92 |
995 | =item c) |
996 | |
997 | Like (b), but @in contains only small integers: |
68dc0745 |
998 | |
999 | @out = grep(!$saw[$_]++, @in); |
1000 | |
551e1d92 |
1001 | =item d) |
1002 | |
1003 | A way to do (b) without any loops or greps: |
68dc0745 |
1004 | |
1005 | undef %saw; |
1006 | @saw{@in} = (); |
1007 | @out = sort keys %saw; # remove sort if undesired |
1008 | |
551e1d92 |
1009 | =item e) |
1010 | |
1011 | Like (d), but @in contains only small positive integers: |
68dc0745 |
1012 | |
1013 | undef @ary; |
1014 | @ary[@in] = @in; |
87275199 |
1015 | @out = grep {defined} @ary; |
68dc0745 |
1016 | |
1017 | =back |
1018 | |
65acb1b1 |
1019 | But perhaps you should have been using a hash all along, eh? |
1020 | |
ddbc1f16 |
1021 | =head2 How can I tell whether a certain element is contained in a list or array? |
5a964f20 |
1022 | |
1023 | Hearing the word "in" is an I<in>dication that you probably should have |
1024 | used a hash, not a list or array, to store your data. Hashes are |
1025 | designed to answer this question quickly and efficiently. Arrays aren't. |
68dc0745 |
1026 | |
5a964f20 |
1027 | That being said, there are several ways to approach this. If you |
1028 | are going to make this query many times over arbitrary string values, |
1029 | the fastest way is probably to invert the original array and keep an |
68dc0745 |
1030 | associative array lying about whose keys are the first array's values. |
1031 | |
1032 | @blues = qw/azure cerulean teal turquoise lapis-lazuli/; |
1033 | undef %is_blue; |
1034 | for (@blues) { $is_blue{$_} = 1 } |
1035 | |
1036 | Now you can check whether $is_blue{$some_color}. It might have been a |
1037 | good idea to keep the blues all in a hash in the first place. |
1038 | |
1039 | If the values are all small integers, you could use a simple indexed |
1040 | array. This kind of an array will take up less space: |
1041 | |
1042 | @primes = (2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31); |
1043 | undef @is_tiny_prime; |
d92eb7b0 |
1044 | for (@primes) { $is_tiny_prime[$_] = 1 } |
1045 | # or simply @istiny_prime[@primes] = (1) x @primes; |
68dc0745 |
1046 | |
1047 | Now you check whether $is_tiny_prime[$some_number]. |
1048 | |
1049 | If the values in question are integers instead of strings, you can save |
1050 | quite a lot of space by using bit strings instead: |
1051 | |
1052 | @articles = ( 1..10, 150..2000, 2017 ); |
1053 | undef $read; |
7b8d334a |
1054 | for (@articles) { vec($read,$_,1) = 1 } |
68dc0745 |
1055 | |
1056 | Now check whether C<vec($read,$n,1)> is true for some C<$n>. |
1057 | |
1058 | Please do not use |
1059 | |
a6dd486b |
1060 | ($is_there) = grep $_ eq $whatever, @array; |
68dc0745 |
1061 | |
1062 | or worse yet |
1063 | |
a6dd486b |
1064 | ($is_there) = grep /$whatever/, @array; |
68dc0745 |
1065 | |
1066 | These are slow (checks every element even if the first matches), |
1067 | inefficient (same reason), and potentially buggy (what if there are |
d92eb7b0 |
1068 | regex characters in $whatever?). If you're only testing once, then |
65acb1b1 |
1069 | use: |
1070 | |
1071 | $is_there = 0; |
1072 | foreach $elt (@array) { |
1073 | if ($elt eq $elt_to_find) { |
1074 | $is_there = 1; |
1075 | last; |
1076 | } |
1077 | } |
1078 | if ($is_there) { ... } |
68dc0745 |
1079 | |
1080 | =head2 How do I compute the difference of two arrays? How do I compute the intersection of two arrays? |
1081 | |
1082 | Use a hash. Here's code to do both and more. It assumes that |
1083 | each element is unique in a given array: |
1084 | |
1085 | @union = @intersection = @difference = (); |
1086 | %count = (); |
1087 | foreach $element (@array1, @array2) { $count{$element}++ } |
1088 | foreach $element (keys %count) { |
1089 | push @union, $element; |
1090 | push @{ $count{$element} > 1 ? \@intersection : \@difference }, $element; |
1091 | } |
1092 | |
d92eb7b0 |
1093 | Note that this is the I<symmetric difference>, that is, all elements in |
a6dd486b |
1094 | either A or in B but not in both. Think of it as an xor operation. |
d92eb7b0 |
1095 | |
65acb1b1 |
1096 | =head2 How do I test whether two arrays or hashes are equal? |
1097 | |
1098 | The following code works for single-level arrays. It uses a stringwise |
1099 | comparison, and does not distinguish defined versus undefined empty |
1100 | strings. Modify if you have other needs. |
1101 | |
1102 | $are_equal = compare_arrays(\@frogs, \@toads); |
1103 | |
1104 | sub compare_arrays { |
1105 | my ($first, $second) = @_; |
9f1b1f2d |
1106 | no warnings; # silence spurious -w undef complaints |
65acb1b1 |
1107 | return 0 unless @$first == @$second; |
1108 | for (my $i = 0; $i < @$first; $i++) { |
1109 | return 0 if $first->[$i] ne $second->[$i]; |
1110 | } |
1111 | return 1; |
1112 | } |
1113 | |
1114 | For multilevel structures, you may wish to use an approach more |
1115 | like this one. It uses the CPAN module FreezeThaw: |
1116 | |
1117 | use FreezeThaw qw(cmpStr); |
1118 | @a = @b = ( "this", "that", [ "more", "stuff" ] ); |
1119 | |
1120 | printf "a and b contain %s arrays\n", |
1121 | cmpStr(\@a, \@b) == 0 |
1122 | ? "the same" |
1123 | : "different"; |
1124 | |
1125 | This approach also works for comparing hashes. Here |
1126 | we'll demonstrate two different answers: |
1127 | |
1128 | use FreezeThaw qw(cmpStr cmpStrHard); |
1129 | |
1130 | %a = %b = ( "this" => "that", "extra" => [ "more", "stuff" ] ); |
1131 | $a{EXTRA} = \%b; |
1132 | $b{EXTRA} = \%a; |
1133 | |
1134 | printf "a and b contain %s hashes\n", |
1135 | cmpStr(\%a, \%b) == 0 ? "the same" : "different"; |
1136 | |
1137 | printf "a and b contain %s hashes\n", |
1138 | cmpStrHard(\%a, \%b) == 0 ? "the same" : "different"; |
1139 | |
1140 | |
1141 | The first reports that both those the hashes contain the same data, |
1142 | while the second reports that they do not. Which you prefer is left as |
1143 | an exercise to the reader. |
1144 | |
68dc0745 |
1145 | =head2 How do I find the first array element for which a condition is true? |
1146 | |
1147 | You can use this if you care about the index: |
1148 | |
65acb1b1 |
1149 | for ($i= 0; $i < @array; $i++) { |
68dc0745 |
1150 | if ($array[$i] eq "Waldo") { |
1151 | $found_index = $i; |
1152 | last; |
1153 | } |
1154 | } |
1155 | |
1156 | Now C<$found_index> has what you want. |
1157 | |
1158 | =head2 How do I handle linked lists? |
1159 | |
1160 | In general, you usually don't need a linked list in Perl, since with |
1161 | regular arrays, you can push and pop or shift and unshift at either end, |
5a964f20 |
1162 | or you can use splice to add and/or remove arbitrary number of elements at |
87275199 |
1163 | arbitrary points. Both pop and shift are both O(1) operations on Perl's |
5a964f20 |
1164 | dynamic arrays. In the absence of shifts and pops, push in general |
1165 | needs to reallocate on the order every log(N) times, and unshift will |
1166 | need to copy pointers each time. |
68dc0745 |
1167 | |
1168 | If you really, really wanted, you could use structures as described in |
1169 | L<perldsc> or L<perltoot> and do just what the algorithm book tells you |
65acb1b1 |
1170 | to do. For example, imagine a list node like this: |
1171 | |
1172 | $node = { |
1173 | VALUE => 42, |
1174 | LINK => undef, |
1175 | }; |
1176 | |
1177 | You could walk the list this way: |
1178 | |
1179 | print "List: "; |
1180 | for ($node = $head; $node; $node = $node->{LINK}) { |
1181 | print $node->{VALUE}, " "; |
1182 | } |
1183 | print "\n"; |
1184 | |
a6dd486b |
1185 | You could add to the list this way: |
65acb1b1 |
1186 | |
1187 | my ($head, $tail); |
1188 | $tail = append($head, 1); # grow a new head |
1189 | for $value ( 2 .. 10 ) { |
1190 | $tail = append($tail, $value); |
1191 | } |
1192 | |
1193 | sub append { |
1194 | my($list, $value) = @_; |
1195 | my $node = { VALUE => $value }; |
1196 | if ($list) { |
1197 | $node->{LINK} = $list->{LINK}; |
1198 | $list->{LINK} = $node; |
1199 | } else { |
1200 | $_[0] = $node; # replace caller's version |
1201 | } |
1202 | return $node; |
1203 | } |
1204 | |
1205 | But again, Perl's built-in are virtually always good enough. |
68dc0745 |
1206 | |
1207 | =head2 How do I handle circular lists? |
1208 | |
1209 | Circular lists could be handled in the traditional fashion with linked |
1210 | lists, or you could just do something like this with an array: |
1211 | |
1212 | unshift(@array, pop(@array)); # the last shall be first |
1213 | push(@array, shift(@array)); # and vice versa |
1214 | |
1215 | =head2 How do I shuffle an array randomly? |
1216 | |
5a964f20 |
1217 | Use this: |
1218 | |
1219 | # fisher_yates_shuffle( \@array ) : |
1220 | # generate a random permutation of @array in place |
1221 | sub fisher_yates_shuffle { |
1222 | my $array = shift; |
1223 | my $i; |
1224 | for ($i = @$array; --$i; ) { |
1225 | my $j = int rand ($i+1); |
5a964f20 |
1226 | @$array[$i,$j] = @$array[$j,$i]; |
1227 | } |
1228 | } |
1229 | |
1230 | fisher_yates_shuffle( \@array ); # permutes @array in place |
1231 | |
d92eb7b0 |
1232 | You've probably seen shuffling algorithms that work using splice, |
a6dd486b |
1233 | randomly picking another element to swap the current element with |
68dc0745 |
1234 | |
1235 | srand; |
1236 | @new = (); |
1237 | @old = 1 .. 10; # just a demo |
1238 | while (@old) { |
1239 | push(@new, splice(@old, rand @old, 1)); |
1240 | } |
1241 | |
5a964f20 |
1242 | This is bad because splice is already O(N), and since you do it N times, |
1243 | you just invented a quadratic algorithm; that is, O(N**2). This does |
1244 | not scale, although Perl is so efficient that you probably won't notice |
1245 | this until you have rather largish arrays. |
68dc0745 |
1246 | |
1247 | =head2 How do I process/modify each element of an array? |
1248 | |
1249 | Use C<for>/C<foreach>: |
1250 | |
1251 | for (@lines) { |
5a964f20 |
1252 | s/foo/bar/; # change that word |
1253 | y/XZ/ZX/; # swap those letters |
68dc0745 |
1254 | } |
1255 | |
1256 | Here's another; let's compute spherical volumes: |
1257 | |
5a964f20 |
1258 | for (@volumes = @radii) { # @volumes has changed parts |
68dc0745 |
1259 | $_ **= 3; |
1260 | $_ *= (4/3) * 3.14159; # this will be constant folded |
1261 | } |
1262 | |
5a964f20 |
1263 | If you want to do the same thing to modify the values of the hash, |
1264 | you may not use the C<values> function, oddly enough. You need a slice: |
1265 | |
1266 | for $orbit ( @orbits{keys %orbits} ) { |
1267 | ($orbit **= 3) *= (4/3) * 3.14159; |
1268 | } |
1269 | |
68dc0745 |
1270 | =head2 How do I select a random element from an array? |
1271 | |
1272 | Use the rand() function (see L<perlfunc/rand>): |
1273 | |
5a964f20 |
1274 | # at the top of the program: |
68dc0745 |
1275 | srand; # not needed for 5.004 and later |
5a964f20 |
1276 | |
1277 | # then later on |
68dc0745 |
1278 | $index = rand @array; |
1279 | $element = $array[$index]; |
1280 | |
5a964f20 |
1281 | Make sure you I<only call srand once per program, if then>. |
1282 | If you are calling it more than once (such as before each |
1283 | call to rand), you're almost certainly doing something wrong. |
1284 | |
68dc0745 |
1285 | =head2 How do I permute N elements of a list? |
1286 | |
1287 | Here's a little program that generates all permutations |
1288 | of all the words on each line of input. The algorithm embodied |
5a964f20 |
1289 | in the permute() function should work on any list: |
68dc0745 |
1290 | |
1291 | #!/usr/bin/perl -n |
5a964f20 |
1292 | # tsc-permute: permute each word of input |
1293 | permute([split], []); |
1294 | sub permute { |
1295 | my @items = @{ $_[0] }; |
1296 | my @perms = @{ $_[1] }; |
1297 | unless (@items) { |
1298 | print "@perms\n"; |
68dc0745 |
1299 | } else { |
5a964f20 |
1300 | my(@newitems,@newperms,$i); |
1301 | foreach $i (0 .. $#items) { |
1302 | @newitems = @items; |
1303 | @newperms = @perms; |
1304 | unshift(@newperms, splice(@newitems, $i, 1)); |
1305 | permute([@newitems], [@newperms]); |
68dc0745 |
1306 | } |
1307 | } |
1308 | } |
1309 | |
1310 | =head2 How do I sort an array by (anything)? |
1311 | |
1312 | Supply a comparison function to sort() (described in L<perlfunc/sort>): |
1313 | |
1314 | @list = sort { $a <=> $b } @list; |
1315 | |
1316 | The default sort function is cmp, string comparison, which would |
c47ff5f1 |
1317 | sort C<(1, 2, 10)> into C<(1, 10, 2)>. C<< <=> >>, used above, is |
68dc0745 |
1318 | the numerical comparison operator. |
1319 | |
1320 | If you have a complicated function needed to pull out the part you |
1321 | want to sort on, then don't do it inside the sort function. Pull it |
1322 | out first, because the sort BLOCK can be called many times for the |
1323 | same element. Here's an example of how to pull out the first word |
1324 | after the first number on each item, and then sort those words |
1325 | case-insensitively. |
1326 | |
1327 | @idx = (); |
1328 | for (@data) { |
1329 | ($item) = /\d+\s*(\S+)/; |
1330 | push @idx, uc($item); |
1331 | } |
1332 | @sorted = @data[ sort { $idx[$a] cmp $idx[$b] } 0 .. $#idx ]; |
1333 | |
a6dd486b |
1334 | which could also be written this way, using a trick |
68dc0745 |
1335 | that's come to be known as the Schwartzian Transform: |
1336 | |
1337 | @sorted = map { $_->[0] } |
1338 | sort { $a->[1] cmp $b->[1] } |
d92eb7b0 |
1339 | map { [ $_, uc( (/\d+\s*(\S+)/)[0]) ] } @data; |
68dc0745 |
1340 | |
1341 | If you need to sort on several fields, the following paradigm is useful. |
1342 | |
1343 | @sorted = sort { field1($a) <=> field1($b) || |
1344 | field2($a) cmp field2($b) || |
1345 | field3($a) cmp field3($b) |
1346 | } @data; |
1347 | |
1348 | This can be conveniently combined with precalculation of keys as given |
1349 | above. |
1350 | |
1351 | See http://www.perl.com/CPAN/doc/FMTEYEWTK/sort.html for more about |
1352 | this approach. |
1353 | |
1354 | See also the question below on sorting hashes. |
1355 | |
1356 | =head2 How do I manipulate arrays of bits? |
1357 | |
1358 | Use pack() and unpack(), or else vec() and the bitwise operations. |
1359 | |
1360 | For example, this sets $vec to have bit N set if $ints[N] was set: |
1361 | |
1362 | $vec = ''; |
1363 | foreach(@ints) { vec($vec,$_,1) = 1 } |
1364 | |
1365 | And here's how, given a vector in $vec, you can |
1366 | get those bits into your @ints array: |
1367 | |
1368 | sub bitvec_to_list { |
1369 | my $vec = shift; |
1370 | my @ints; |
1371 | # Find null-byte density then select best algorithm |
1372 | if ($vec =~ tr/\0// / length $vec > 0.95) { |
1373 | use integer; |
1374 | my $i; |
1375 | # This method is faster with mostly null-bytes |
1376 | while($vec =~ /[^\0]/g ) { |
1377 | $i = -9 + 8 * pos $vec; |
1378 | push @ints, $i if vec($vec, ++$i, 1); |
1379 | push @ints, $i if vec($vec, ++$i, 1); |
1380 | push @ints, $i if vec($vec, ++$i, 1); |
1381 | push @ints, $i if vec($vec, ++$i, 1); |
1382 | push @ints, $i if vec($vec, ++$i, 1); |
1383 | push @ints, $i if vec($vec, ++$i, 1); |
1384 | push @ints, $i if vec($vec, ++$i, 1); |
1385 | push @ints, $i if vec($vec, ++$i, 1); |
1386 | } |
1387 | } else { |
1388 | # This method is a fast general algorithm |
1389 | use integer; |
1390 | my $bits = unpack "b*", $vec; |
1391 | push @ints, 0 if $bits =~ s/^(\d)// && $1; |
1392 | push @ints, pos $bits while($bits =~ /1/g); |
1393 | } |
1394 | return \@ints; |
1395 | } |
1396 | |
1397 | This method gets faster the more sparse the bit vector is. |
1398 | (Courtesy of Tim Bunce and Winfried Koenig.) |
1399 | |
65acb1b1 |
1400 | Here's a demo on how to use vec(): |
1401 | |
1402 | # vec demo |
1403 | $vector = "\xff\x0f\xef\xfe"; |
1404 | print "Ilya's string \\xff\\x0f\\xef\\xfe represents the number ", |
1405 | unpack("N", $vector), "\n"; |
1406 | $is_set = vec($vector, 23, 1); |
1407 | print "Its 23rd bit is ", $is_set ? "set" : "clear", ".\n"; |
1408 | pvec($vector); |
1409 | |
1410 | set_vec(1,1,1); |
1411 | set_vec(3,1,1); |
1412 | set_vec(23,1,1); |
1413 | |
1414 | set_vec(3,1,3); |
1415 | set_vec(3,2,3); |
1416 | set_vec(3,4,3); |
1417 | set_vec(3,4,7); |
1418 | set_vec(3,8,3); |
1419 | set_vec(3,8,7); |
1420 | |
1421 | set_vec(0,32,17); |
1422 | set_vec(1,32,17); |
1423 | |
1424 | sub set_vec { |
1425 | my ($offset, $width, $value) = @_; |
1426 | my $vector = ''; |
1427 | vec($vector, $offset, $width) = $value; |
1428 | print "offset=$offset width=$width value=$value\n"; |
1429 | pvec($vector); |
1430 | } |
1431 | |
1432 | sub pvec { |
1433 | my $vector = shift; |
1434 | my $bits = unpack("b*", $vector); |
1435 | my $i = 0; |
1436 | my $BASE = 8; |
1437 | |
1438 | print "vector length in bytes: ", length($vector), "\n"; |
1439 | @bytes = unpack("A8" x length($vector), $bits); |
1440 | print "bits are: @bytes\n\n"; |
1441 | } |
1442 | |
68dc0745 |
1443 | =head2 Why does defined() return true on empty arrays and hashes? |
1444 | |
65acb1b1 |
1445 | The short story is that you should probably only use defined on scalars or |
1446 | functions, not on aggregates (arrays and hashes). See L<perlfunc/defined> |
1447 | in the 5.004 release or later of Perl for more detail. |
68dc0745 |
1448 | |
1449 | =head1 Data: Hashes (Associative Arrays) |
1450 | |
1451 | =head2 How do I process an entire hash? |
1452 | |
1453 | Use the each() function (see L<perlfunc/each>) if you don't care |
1454 | whether it's sorted: |
1455 | |
5a964f20 |
1456 | while ( ($key, $value) = each %hash) { |
68dc0745 |
1457 | print "$key = $value\n"; |
1458 | } |
1459 | |
1460 | If you want it sorted, you'll have to use foreach() on the result of |
1461 | sorting the keys as shown in an earlier question. |
1462 | |
1463 | =head2 What happens if I add or remove keys from a hash while iterating over it? |
1464 | |
d92eb7b0 |
1465 | Don't do that. :-) |
1466 | |
1467 | [lwall] In Perl 4, you were not allowed to modify a hash at all while |
87275199 |
1468 | iterating over it. In Perl 5 you can delete from it, but you still |
d92eb7b0 |
1469 | can't add to it, because that might cause a doubling of the hash table, |
1470 | in which half the entries get copied up to the new top half of the |
87275199 |
1471 | table, at which point you've totally bamboozled the iterator code. |
d92eb7b0 |
1472 | Even if the table doesn't double, there's no telling whether your new |
1473 | entry will be inserted before or after the current iterator position. |
1474 | |
a6dd486b |
1475 | Either treasure up your changes and make them after the iterator finishes |
d92eb7b0 |
1476 | or use keys to fetch all the old keys at once, and iterate over the list |
1477 | of keys. |
68dc0745 |
1478 | |
1479 | =head2 How do I look up a hash element by value? |
1480 | |
1481 | Create a reverse hash: |
1482 | |
1483 | %by_value = reverse %by_key; |
1484 | $key = $by_value{$value}; |
1485 | |
1486 | That's not particularly efficient. It would be more space-efficient |
1487 | to use: |
1488 | |
1489 | while (($key, $value) = each %by_key) { |
1490 | $by_value{$value} = $key; |
1491 | } |
1492 | |
d92eb7b0 |
1493 | If your hash could have repeated values, the methods above will only find |
1494 | one of the associated keys. This may or may not worry you. If it does |
1495 | worry you, you can always reverse the hash into a hash of arrays instead: |
1496 | |
1497 | while (($key, $value) = each %by_key) { |
1498 | push @{$key_list_by_value{$value}}, $key; |
1499 | } |
68dc0745 |
1500 | |
1501 | =head2 How can I know how many entries are in a hash? |
1502 | |
1503 | If you mean how many keys, then all you have to do is |
1504 | take the scalar sense of the keys() function: |
1505 | |
3fe9a6f1 |
1506 | $num_keys = scalar keys %hash; |
68dc0745 |
1507 | |
a6dd486b |
1508 | The keys() function also resets the iterator, which in void context is |
d92eb7b0 |
1509 | faster for tied hashes than would be iterating through the whole |
1510 | hash, one key-value pair at a time. |
68dc0745 |
1511 | |
1512 | =head2 How do I sort a hash (optionally by value instead of key)? |
1513 | |
1514 | Internally, hashes are stored in a way that prevents you from imposing |
1515 | an order on key-value pairs. Instead, you have to sort a list of the |
1516 | keys or values: |
1517 | |
1518 | @keys = sort keys %hash; # sorted by key |
1519 | @keys = sort { |
1520 | $hash{$a} cmp $hash{$b} |
1521 | } keys %hash; # and by value |
1522 | |
1523 | Here we'll do a reverse numeric sort by value, and if two keys are |
a6dd486b |
1524 | identical, sort by length of key, or if that fails, by straight ASCII |
1525 | comparison of the keys (well, possibly modified by your locale--see |
68dc0745 |
1526 | L<perllocale>). |
1527 | |
1528 | @keys = sort { |
1529 | $hash{$b} <=> $hash{$a} |
1530 | || |
1531 | length($b) <=> length($a) |
1532 | || |
1533 | $a cmp $b |
1534 | } keys %hash; |
1535 | |
1536 | =head2 How can I always keep my hash sorted? |
1537 | |
1538 | You can look into using the DB_File module and tie() using the |
1539 | $DB_BTREE hash bindings as documented in L<DB_File/"In Memory Databases">. |
5a964f20 |
1540 | The Tie::IxHash module from CPAN might also be instructive. |
68dc0745 |
1541 | |
1542 | =head2 What's the difference between "delete" and "undef" with hashes? |
1543 | |
1544 | Hashes are pairs of scalars: the first is the key, the second is the |
1545 | value. The key will be coerced to a string, although the value can be |
1546 | any kind of scalar: string, number, or reference. If a key C<$key> is |
1547 | present in the array, C<exists($key)> will return true. The value for |
1548 | a given key can be C<undef>, in which case C<$array{$key}> will be |
1549 | C<undef> while C<$exists{$key}> will return true. This corresponds to |
1550 | (C<$key>, C<undef>) being in the hash. |
1551 | |
1552 | Pictures help... here's the C<%ary> table: |
1553 | |
1554 | keys values |
1555 | +------+------+ |
1556 | | a | 3 | |
1557 | | x | 7 | |
1558 | | d | 0 | |
1559 | | e | 2 | |
1560 | +------+------+ |
1561 | |
1562 | And these conditions hold |
1563 | |
1564 | $ary{'a'} is true |
1565 | $ary{'d'} is false |
1566 | defined $ary{'d'} is true |
1567 | defined $ary{'a'} is true |
87275199 |
1568 | exists $ary{'a'} is true (Perl5 only) |
68dc0745 |
1569 | grep ($_ eq 'a', keys %ary) is true |
1570 | |
1571 | If you now say |
1572 | |
1573 | undef $ary{'a'} |
1574 | |
1575 | your table now reads: |
1576 | |
1577 | |
1578 | keys values |
1579 | +------+------+ |
1580 | | a | undef| |
1581 | | x | 7 | |
1582 | | d | 0 | |
1583 | | e | 2 | |
1584 | +------+------+ |
1585 | |
1586 | and these conditions now hold; changes in caps: |
1587 | |
1588 | $ary{'a'} is FALSE |
1589 | $ary{'d'} is false |
1590 | defined $ary{'d'} is true |
1591 | defined $ary{'a'} is FALSE |
87275199 |
1592 | exists $ary{'a'} is true (Perl5 only) |
68dc0745 |
1593 | grep ($_ eq 'a', keys %ary) is true |
1594 | |
1595 | Notice the last two: you have an undef value, but a defined key! |
1596 | |
1597 | Now, consider this: |
1598 | |
1599 | delete $ary{'a'} |
1600 | |
1601 | your table now reads: |
1602 | |
1603 | keys values |
1604 | +------+------+ |
1605 | | x | 7 | |
1606 | | d | 0 | |
1607 | | e | 2 | |
1608 | +------+------+ |
1609 | |
1610 | and these conditions now hold; changes in caps: |
1611 | |
1612 | $ary{'a'} is false |
1613 | $ary{'d'} is false |
1614 | defined $ary{'d'} is true |
1615 | defined $ary{'a'} is false |
87275199 |
1616 | exists $ary{'a'} is FALSE (Perl5 only) |
68dc0745 |
1617 | grep ($_ eq 'a', keys %ary) is FALSE |
1618 | |
1619 | See, the whole entry is gone! |
1620 | |
1621 | =head2 Why don't my tied hashes make the defined/exists distinction? |
1622 | |
1623 | They may or may not implement the EXISTS() and DEFINED() methods |
1624 | differently. For example, there isn't the concept of undef with hashes |
1625 | that are tied to DBM* files. This means the true/false tables above |
1626 | will give different results when used on such a hash. It also means |
1627 | that exists and defined do the same thing with a DBM* file, and what |
1628 | they end up doing is not what they do with ordinary hashes. |
1629 | |
1630 | =head2 How do I reset an each() operation part-way through? |
1631 | |
5a964f20 |
1632 | Using C<keys %hash> in scalar context returns the number of keys in |
68dc0745 |
1633 | the hash I<and> resets the iterator associated with the hash. You may |
1634 | need to do this if you use C<last> to exit a loop early so that when you |
46fc3d4c |
1635 | re-enter it, the hash iterator has been reset. |
68dc0745 |
1636 | |
1637 | =head2 How can I get the unique keys from two hashes? |
1638 | |
d92eb7b0 |
1639 | First you extract the keys from the hashes into lists, then solve |
1640 | the "removing duplicates" problem described above. For example: |
68dc0745 |
1641 | |
1642 | %seen = (); |
1643 | for $element (keys(%foo), keys(%bar)) { |
1644 | $seen{$element}++; |
1645 | } |
1646 | @uniq = keys %seen; |
1647 | |
1648 | Or more succinctly: |
1649 | |
1650 | @uniq = keys %{{%foo,%bar}}; |
1651 | |
1652 | Or if you really want to save space: |
1653 | |
1654 | %seen = (); |
1655 | while (defined ($key = each %foo)) { |
1656 | $seen{$key}++; |
1657 | } |
1658 | while (defined ($key = each %bar)) { |
1659 | $seen{$key}++; |
1660 | } |
1661 | @uniq = keys %seen; |
1662 | |
1663 | =head2 How can I store a multidimensional array in a DBM file? |
1664 | |
1665 | Either stringify the structure yourself (no fun), or else |
1666 | get the MLDBM (which uses Data::Dumper) module from CPAN and layer |
1667 | it on top of either DB_File or GDBM_File. |
1668 | |
1669 | =head2 How can I make my hash remember the order I put elements into it? |
1670 | |
1671 | Use the Tie::IxHash from CPAN. |
1672 | |
46fc3d4c |
1673 | use Tie::IxHash; |
1674 | tie(%myhash, Tie::IxHash); |
1675 | for ($i=0; $i<20; $i++) { |
1676 | $myhash{$i} = 2*$i; |
1677 | } |
1678 | @keys = keys %myhash; |
1679 | # @keys = (0,1,2,3,...) |
1680 | |
68dc0745 |
1681 | =head2 Why does passing a subroutine an undefined element in a hash create it? |
1682 | |
1683 | If you say something like: |
1684 | |
1685 | somefunc($hash{"nonesuch key here"}); |
1686 | |
1687 | Then that element "autovivifies"; that is, it springs into existence |
1688 | whether you store something there or not. That's because functions |
1689 | get scalars passed in by reference. If somefunc() modifies C<$_[0]>, |
1690 | it has to be ready to write it back into the caller's version. |
1691 | |
87275199 |
1692 | This has been fixed as of Perl5.004. |
68dc0745 |
1693 | |
1694 | Normally, merely accessing a key's value for a nonexistent key does |
1695 | I<not> cause that key to be forever there. This is different than |
1696 | awk's behavior. |
1697 | |
fc36a67e |
1698 | =head2 How can I make the Perl equivalent of a C structure/C++ class/hash or array of hashes or arrays? |
68dc0745 |
1699 | |
65acb1b1 |
1700 | Usually a hash ref, perhaps like this: |
1701 | |
1702 | $record = { |
1703 | NAME => "Jason", |
1704 | EMPNO => 132, |
1705 | TITLE => "deputy peon", |
1706 | AGE => 23, |
1707 | SALARY => 37_000, |
1708 | PALS => [ "Norbert", "Rhys", "Phineas"], |
1709 | }; |
1710 | |
1711 | References are documented in L<perlref> and the upcoming L<perlreftut>. |
1712 | Examples of complex data structures are given in L<perldsc> and |
1713 | L<perllol>. Examples of structures and object-oriented classes are |
1714 | in L<perltoot>. |
68dc0745 |
1715 | |
1716 | =head2 How can I use a reference as a hash key? |
1717 | |
1718 | You can't do this directly, but you could use the standard Tie::Refhash |
87275199 |
1719 | module distributed with Perl. |
68dc0745 |
1720 | |
1721 | =head1 Data: Misc |
1722 | |
1723 | =head2 How do I handle binary data correctly? |
1724 | |
1725 | Perl is binary clean, so this shouldn't be a problem. For example, |
1726 | this works fine (assuming the files are found): |
1727 | |
1728 | if (`cat /vmunix` =~ /gzip/) { |
1729 | print "Your kernel is GNU-zip enabled!\n"; |
1730 | } |
1731 | |
d92eb7b0 |
1732 | On less elegant (read: Byzantine) systems, however, you have |
1733 | to play tedious games with "text" versus "binary" files. See |
1734 | L<perlfunc/"binmode"> or L<perlopentut>. Most of these ancient-thinking |
1735 | systems are curses out of Microsoft, who seem to be committed to putting |
1736 | the backward into backward compatibility. |
68dc0745 |
1737 | |
1738 | If you're concerned about 8-bit ASCII data, then see L<perllocale>. |
1739 | |
54310121 |
1740 | If you want to deal with multibyte characters, however, there are |
68dc0745 |
1741 | some gotchas. See the section on Regular Expressions. |
1742 | |
1743 | =head2 How do I determine whether a scalar is a number/whole/integer/float? |
1744 | |
1745 | Assuming that you don't care about IEEE notations like "NaN" or |
1746 | "Infinity", you probably just want to use a regular expression. |
1747 | |
65acb1b1 |
1748 | if (/\D/) { print "has nondigits\n" } |
1749 | if (/^\d+$/) { print "is a whole number\n" } |
1750 | if (/^-?\d+$/) { print "is an integer\n" } |
1751 | if (/^[+-]?\d+$/) { print "is a +/- integer\n" } |
1752 | if (/^-?\d+\.?\d*$/) { print "is a real number\n" } |
1753 | if (/^-?(?:\d+(?:\.\d*)?|\.\d+)$/) { print "is a decimal number" } |
1754 | if (/^([+-]?)(?=\d|\.\d)\d*(\.\d*)?([Ee]([+-]?\d+))?$/) |
1755 | { print "a C float" } |
68dc0745 |
1756 | |
5a964f20 |
1757 | If you're on a POSIX system, Perl's supports the C<POSIX::strtod> |
1758 | function. Its semantics are somewhat cumbersome, so here's a C<getnum> |
1759 | wrapper function for more convenient access. This function takes |
1760 | a string and returns the number it found, or C<undef> for input that |
1761 | isn't a C float. The C<is_numeric> function is a front end to C<getnum> |
1762 | if you just want to say, ``Is this a float?'' |
1763 | |
1764 | sub getnum { |
1765 | use POSIX qw(strtod); |
1766 | my $str = shift; |
1767 | $str =~ s/^\s+//; |
1768 | $str =~ s/\s+$//; |
1769 | $! = 0; |
1770 | my($num, $unparsed) = strtod($str); |
1771 | if (($str eq '') || ($unparsed != 0) || $!) { |
1772 | return undef; |
1773 | } else { |
1774 | return $num; |
1775 | } |
1776 | } |
1777 | |
072dc14b |
1778 | sub is_numeric { defined getnum($_[0]) } |
5a964f20 |
1779 | |
6cecdcac |
1780 | Or you could check out the String::Scanf module on CPAN instead. The |
1781 | POSIX module (part of the standard Perl distribution) provides the |
bf4acbe4 |
1782 | C<strtod> and C<strtol> for converting strings to double and longs, |
6cecdcac |
1783 | respectively. |
68dc0745 |
1784 | |
1785 | =head2 How do I keep persistent data across program calls? |
1786 | |
1787 | For some specific applications, you can use one of the DBM modules. |
65acb1b1 |
1788 | See L<AnyDBM_File>. More generically, you should consult the FreezeThaw, |
83df6a1d |
1789 | Storable, or Class::Eroot modules from CPAN. Starting from Perl 5.8 |
1790 | Storable is part of the standard distribution. Here's one example using |
65acb1b1 |
1791 | Storable's C<store> and C<retrieve> functions: |
1792 | |
1793 | use Storable; |
1794 | store(\%hash, "filename"); |
1795 | |
1796 | # later on... |
1797 | $href = retrieve("filename"); # by ref |
1798 | %hash = %{ retrieve("filename") }; # direct to hash |
68dc0745 |
1799 | |
1800 | =head2 How do I print out or copy a recursive data structure? |
1801 | |
65acb1b1 |
1802 | The Data::Dumper module on CPAN (or the 5.005 release of Perl) is great |
1803 | for printing out data structures. The Storable module, found on CPAN, |
1804 | provides a function called C<dclone> that recursively copies its argument. |
1805 | |
1806 | use Storable qw(dclone); |
1807 | $r2 = dclone($r1); |
68dc0745 |
1808 | |
65acb1b1 |
1809 | Where $r1 can be a reference to any kind of data structure you'd like. |
1810 | It will be deeply copied. Because C<dclone> takes and returns references, |
1811 | you'd have to add extra punctuation if you had a hash of arrays that |
1812 | you wanted to copy. |
68dc0745 |
1813 | |
65acb1b1 |
1814 | %newhash = %{ dclone(\%oldhash) }; |
68dc0745 |
1815 | |
1816 | =head2 How do I define methods for every class/object? |
1817 | |
1818 | Use the UNIVERSAL class (see L<UNIVERSAL>). |
1819 | |
1820 | =head2 How do I verify a credit card checksum? |
1821 | |
1822 | Get the Business::CreditCard module from CPAN. |
1823 | |
65acb1b1 |
1824 | =head2 How do I pack arrays of doubles or floats for XS code? |
1825 | |
1826 | The kgbpack.c code in the PGPLOT module on CPAN does just this. |
1827 | If you're doing a lot of float or double processing, consider using |
1828 | the PDL module from CPAN instead--it makes number-crunching easy. |
1829 | |
68dc0745 |
1830 | =head1 AUTHOR AND COPYRIGHT |
1831 | |
65acb1b1 |
1832 | Copyright (c) 1997-1999 Tom Christiansen and Nathan Torkington. |
5a964f20 |
1833 | All rights reserved. |
1834 | |
1835 | When included as part of the Standard Version of Perl, or as part of |
1836 | its complete documentation whether printed or otherwise, this work |
d92eb7b0 |
1837 | may be distributed only under the terms of Perl's Artistic License. |
5a964f20 |
1838 | Any distribution of this file or derivatives thereof I<outside> |
1839 | of that package require that special arrangements be made with |
1840 | copyright holder. |
1841 | |
1842 | Irrespective of its distribution, all code examples in this file |
1843 | are hereby placed into the public domain. You are permitted and |
1844 | encouraged to use this code in your own programs for fun |
1845 | or for profit as you see fit. A simple comment in the code giving |
1846 | credit would be courteous but is not required. |